Conjunctions. The types of the conjunctions

You must be buck at 2 o'clock. I want you to do some cooking. You must call me Sir (I like it that way).

Obligations expressed by must refer to the present or future but in reported speech they may refer to the past.

James said we must invite the Stewarts to dinner.

Future obligations can be made more precise with the future indefinite of the verb have to.

I'll have to read it again.

We shall have to give you a new copy of the Book.

Since the negative form of must denotes a negative obligation or sometimes a prohibition, it cannot express absence of necessity expressed by needn't.

— Must I go?—No, you needn't, if you don't want to.

Must is used interchangeably with to be to for instructions on notices or orders.

Passangers must cross the lines by the footbridge (the railway company instructs them to.)

Applications for admission to the Students' Room of the Department of Manuscripts must be accompanied by a letter of recommendation. This card must be surrendered with your room key on vacating Astor College.

All rooms must be vacated by 11 a.m. and the keys handed to the porter on the day of departure. Guests must be out of the building by midnight.

In all the above cases must is preferable, as be to is comparatively rare.

With a 2nd person subject must expresses an obligation which has the same effect as a command.

You must do as you are told.

You must be careful.

You must go now. I want to go to bed.

You must change your shoes, 1 won't have you in here with muddy

feet.

2. Prohibition. Such sentences are sometimes negative commands, corresponding to the Russian sentences with нельзя, не разрешается.

The girl mustn't go home alone. It's very late. - Девочке нельзя идти домой одной.

Cars must not be parked in front of this gate. - He разрешается оставлять машины перед воротами. You mustn't do that! - He делайте этого! You mustn't come into the ward, it's against the rules.

3. Emphasis. In this case must is not translated into Russian, it merely emphasizes some action or idea.

Just when we were ready to go away for the holidays, the baby

must catch measles.—Как раз, когда мы уже уезжали в отпуск, ребенок вдруг заболел корью, (...возьми да и заболей...)

Of course after I gave her my advice she must go and do the opposites.-—Ну, конечно, после того, как я ей посоветовала, она вдруг пойди и сделай наоборот.

As we were starting what must he do but cut his finger.— Мы уже выходили, когда он вдруг порезал себе палец, (...возьми да и порежь...)

At a time when everybody is in bed he must turn on the wireless.— Именно когда уже все спят, он вдруг включает приемник.

4. Invitations. You must come and see me sometime. You must come and have dinner with us. You must come and see our picture gallery.

II. Combined with any form of the infinitive must expresses probability, near certainty. It has the same meaning as the modal words probably, evidently. In this sense must occurs only in positive statements and corresponds to the Russian modal words вероятно, должно быть.

He must be mad (it seems certain that he is mad).

He must be lonely (probably he is lonely).

Where's Nell? She must be sightseeing now (she is probably sightseeing).

Must expressing probability is not used:

a) with reference lo the future. Instead of the modal verb the adverbs probably and evidently are used.

He will probably feel lonely.

b) in negative and interrogative forms. There are several ways of expressing the negative meaning of probability in such sentences: by negative affixes, or negative pronouns or lexically.

1.   You must have misunderstood me.

2.    They must have been inattentive.

3.   She must have failed to recognize you.

4.    He must have had no chance to warn you.

5.     The letter must have never reached them.

6.      The letter must have been left unanswered.

7.     No one must have seen him there.

8.     He must be quite unaware of the circumstances.

 

                      To have to, have got

 

As a modal verb to have to differs from the others in that it is not defective. It can have the category of person and number and all tense-aspect forms, as well as verbals. It is followed by a to infinitive.

As there is no through train to our town we have to change in Moscow.

We had to look all over town before we found what we wanted.

She won't have to walk the whole way, will she?

Having to go so soon we were afraid of missing the man.

Have to builds up its interrogative and negative forms with the help of the auxiliary verb to do.

Do you have to work so hard?

Do you have to leave already?

He doesn't have to be here before Friday.

You don't have to do what your sister tells you.

Why does he have to go there?

Have to combines only with the non-perfect infinitive.

The modal verb to have to expresses:

1. Obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. It is similar in its meaning to must (1). It corresponds to the Russian приходится, вынужден.

She is usually short of time so she has to go by air (ей приходится лететь, она вынуждена лететь).

My sister has a lot of friends in different parts of' the country, so she has to write lots of letters (ей приходится...).

In the past tense have to indicates a fulfilled obligation.

We had to do a lot of things during the week we stayed in the country (were obliged and did it).

They made such a noise that I had to send one of the boys to make inquiries (it was necessary and I did it).

        Have to replaces must where must cannot be used: a) to express past necessity or obligation, b) to express absence of necessity (in the sense of needn't), since must not means prohibition, and c) to express a future obligation, since the future tense of the verb have to makes the obligation more precise.

a)  We had to do it again.

     They had to do what they were told.

b) You don't have to make another copy of the document, Miss Black; this copy                                       will be quite satisfactory.

c) You'll have to take a taxi if you mean to catch the train.

     Have got to has the same basic meaning as have to. It is more usual in spoken English especially in the negative and interrogative forms. Besides have to usually denotes a habitual action and have got to denotes a particular action (mainly in colloquial style).

Do you have to get up early every morning? Have you got to get up early tomorrow morning?

2. Certainty or logical necessity. Both have to and have got to are possible, the former being more common in American English and the latter in British English.

You have to be joking.-Am. English.

The bombing's got to stop sometime.-B. English. (It is certain that

the bombing will stop sometime.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                    To be to

 

     To be to as a modal verb is used in the present and past indefinite tenses.

To be to expresses:

1. An- obligation arising out of an arrangement or plan. It is found in statements and questions.

We are to complete this work by tomorrow. (Somebody expects it.)

I am to go down in my car and pick up the parcels.

When is the wedding to be?

When am I to come?

Who is to be the first?

The ship was to dock on Sunday.

I was to meet Mother at the dentist's at 11.

The last two sentences in which to be is in the past indefinite do not indicate whether the action did or did not take place.

On the other hand it is the only way to indicate a fulfilled future in the past.

I was to meet Mother at Ц (and I did).

To emphasize that the action did not take place the perfect infinitive is used after the past indefinite of the verb to be to.

I was to have come (but I failed to do so).

She was to have graduated in June, but unfortunately fell ill.                             

The present indefinite may signify an arrangement (especially official) for the future.

The West German Chancellor is to visit France.

2. A purpose, a plan.

The prize was to honour him for his great discoveries. A knife is to cut with.

3.  A strict order or an instruction given either by the speaker or (more usually) by some official authority.

He is to return to Liverpool tomorrow (lie has been given orders to return to Liverpool).

You are to stay here until 1 return (I tell you to...).

You are to do it exactly the way you are told.

Note the difference between to be to and to have to:

Soldiers have to salute their officers (such is customary obligation, the general rule).

All junior officers are to report to the colonel at once (an order).

4.  Strict prohibition (only in the negative form).

You are not to do that.

You are not to tell anybody about it.

We are not to leave the place until we are told to.

You are not to smoke in this room.

5. Something  that  is  destined  to  happen, that  is  unavoidable.  It corresponds to the Russian суждено, предстоит.

I didn't know at the time that she was to be my wife (что ей суждено было стать моей женой).

As a young man he didn't know that he was to become a famous scientist (ему суждено было стать знаменитым ученым).

If we are to be neighbours for life we should be on friendly terms (если нам предстоит всю жизнь быть соседями...).

Не was never to see her again (ему больше никогда не суждено было ее увидеть).

It was not to be (этому не суждено было сбыться).

Sometimes it may be translated by the Russian verb хотеть, especially after the conjunction if.

           If we are to get there on time, we must start at once (если мы

хотим прийти вовремя, надо сразу отправляться).

6. Possibility. In this case the passive form of the non-perfect

infinitive is used, unless it is a question beginning with the interrogative

adverb how.

They are not to be trusted.

Nothing was to be done under the circumstances.

He was nowhere to be found.

Where is the man to be found?

How am I to repay you for your kindness? This meaning is similar to the meaning of can and may. Here are some set expressions with the verb to be to:

What am I to do? Что мне делать? Как мне быть?

What is to become of me? Что со мною станется (будет)?

Where am I to go? Куда же мне деваться?

                                         Need

 

            The modal verb need may be either a defective or a regular verb. As a defective verb need has only one form and combines with a bare infinitive. In reported speech it remains unchanged. As a regular verb it has the past indefinite form needed and regular negative and interrogative forms.

Need I do it?

You needn't do it just now.

The teacher said that we needn't come.

There is a slight difference in the usage of regular and irregular forms. The regular form is used mainly when the following infinitive denotes habitual action.

 Do I need to show my pass every time? You don't need to say it every time you see him.

The defective form is more common for one particular occasion. Need I show you my pass now?

The defective form is mainly restricted to negative and interrogative sentences whereas the regular verb can be used in all types of sentences and is therefore more common.

               Need expresses necessity. It is mainly used in questions and negative statements, where it is a replacement for must or for have got to.

Do you need to work so hard (do you have to work so hard? Have you got to...).

It corresponds to the Russian нужно.

You needn't do it now. Сейчас не нужно этого делать. Need she come tomorrow? Ей нужно завтра приходить?

              The negation is not always --combined with the verb, but may be expressed by other parts of the sentence.

I don't think we need mention him at all.

1 need hardly say that you are to blame.

            In questions need is used when there is a strong clement of negation or doubt or when the speaker expects a negative answer.

Need she go there? (hoping for a negative answer) I wonder if I need go there, (statement of doubt)

In negative statements need followed by a perfect infinitive indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive was performed but was not necessary, it implies a waste of time or effort, and is therefore translated by зря, незачем, не к чему было.

You  needn't have spent all  the  money.  Now  we've got  nothing left.— 'Зря ты потратил все деньги, не к чему было тратить. We needn't have wailed for her because she never came at all,— Нечего было ее ждать. Она все равно не пришла.

                  

                                     Ought to

             The modal verb ought has only one form. It is not changed in reported speech.

Ought combines with the /«-infinitive. When followed by the non-perfect or continuous infinitive it indicates reference to the present or future. In indirect speech it may also refer the action to the past.

1 told him that he ought to do it, so he did it. She told him he ought not to go away.

Ought expresses:

1. Moral duty, moral obligation (which is not always fulfilled). It corresponds to the Russian следует.

You ought to look after your children better (you don't always do

it). Вам следует больше заботиться о детях.

You ought to be ashamed of yourself.

1 wonder whether 1 oughtn't to speak to him.

He ought to be punished, oughtn't he?

              When used with the perfect infinitive ought means that something right has not been done, a desirable action has not Deen carried out and it, therefore, implies reproach.

You ought, to have helped him (but you didn't).  Нам следовало бы ему помочь.

Не ought to have been more careful (he was not careful enough). Ему следовало бы быть более осторожным.

Ought not + perfect infinitive means that something wrong has been done and it is now too late to change it. It may also be viewed as a reproach.

'She told him he ought not to have done it (but he had done it). You oughtn't to have laughed at his mistakes.

The opposite to ought to is needn't used to mean that the action is unnecessary.

We ought to wash the dishes but we needn't dry them because they will dry themselves.

2. Advisability (which is sometimes understood as desirability). You ought to see a doctor. We really ought to buy a new car, oughtn't we?

3. Probability, something that can be naturally expected. It corresponds to the Russian должно быть, наверное.

You ought to be hungry by now (you probably are, but I'm not certain). Вы, наверное, уже проголодались.

Apples ought to grow well here. Здесь должны хорошо расти яблоки.

If he started at nine he ought to be here by four (he will probably be here by four).

There oughtn't to be any difficulty (it's unlikely that there will be).

Black Beauty is the horse that ought tu win the race (... is likely to win...).

In this sense ought is a weaker equivalent of must when the latter denotes near certainty.

Ought to + infinitive is used when describing something exciting, funny or beautiful in the meaning of / wish you could.

You ought to hear the way he plays the piano!

 

                                         Should

 

            Historically should was the past form of shall and both the forms expressed obligation. But in present-day English they have developed different meanings and are treated as two different verbs.

          Should followed by the non-perfect infinitive may be used with reference to the present and future and is not changed in reported speech.

You  should be more careful.  Вам следуем  быть  внимательнее

I told him he should he more careful.

Should is nearly always interchangeable with ought to, as then' meanings coincide.

It expresses:

1. Moral obligation or duty which may not be fulfilled. Should is found in this sense in all kinds of sentences.

All students should submit their work by present date (but some

of them don't). Студенты должны сдать работу к сегодняшнему дню.

Private firearms should be banned. Личное оружие следует  запретить.

Me should phone his patents tonight, but he probably won't have time.

Он должен позвонить, но, вероятно, у него не будет времени  на это.

If you see anything strange you should call the police.

However in this sense ought is preferable. When used in the negative should denotes a weakened prohibition, more like negative advice.

lie shouldn't be so impatient.

When combined with the  perfect infinitive should denotes criticism, faultfinding, the statement indicates that something desirable has not

been done.

Your shoes are wet. You should have slaved at home. You should have put more sugar in the pie. It isn't sweet enough. He hasn't brought the book back though he should have brought it last week.

A negative statement indicates that something wrong has been done. You shouldn't have done that. It was stupid. Вам не следовало это делать.