Conjunctions. The types of the conjunctions

Present: She should go to work now.

              He might be sleeping now.

              He should be told about it.

               I must go to the bank tomorrow.

Past: You should have told me about it.

         He might have been sleeping at 3 yesterday.

        This letter should have been sent a week ago.

Substitutes

Modal verbs are very common and widely used in speech and in writing. Still, there are quite a few substitutes for modal verbs. They are the phrases "be able to, have to, have got to, be to, be supposed to, be going to, used to", the adverbs "probably, maybe" and some others. Some substitutes are also very common and widely used, for example, "have to" instead of "must" in the meaning "strong necessity"; "probably" instead of "must" in the meaning "strong probability"; "maybe" instead of "may, might, could" in the meaning "possibility", etc. But the most important use of substitute phrases is in the cases when modal verbs can't be used. For example, the modal verb "must" in the meaning "strong necessity" doesn't have the past form, so the substitute phrase "have to" (necessity) is typically used instead of the modal verb "must" in the past tense, with a little change in meaning:(3)

Maria must go to the bank today, (strong necessity)

She has to go to the bank today, (necessity)

She had to go to the bank yesterday, (necessity; realized action)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(2). www.wikipedia.com. “modal words and verbs”.

 

 

 

                                  Types of modal verbs 

    Modal verbs, unlike other verbs, do not denote actions or states, but only show the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the infinitive in combination with which they form compound modal predicates. Thus they may show that the action (or state, or process) is viewed by the speaker as possible, obligatory, doubtful, certain, permissible, advisable, requested, prohibited, ordered, etc. Modal verbs occur only with the infinitive.

There are 12 modal verbs in English. They are: can, may, must, should, ought, shall, will, would, need, dare, to be, to have (to have got). The latter two are modal only in one of their meanings.

Ten of them (that is all but to be and to have) are also called defective or anomalous verbs as they lack some features characteristic of other verbs, that is

1) they do not take -s in the third person singular;

2) they have no verbals, so they have ho analytical forms;

3) they have (except for can and may) only one form and no past tense;

4) they are followed (except for ought) by a bare infinitive (that is by the infinitive without the particle to)\

5) they need no auxiliary to build up the interrogative and negative forms.

 

 

 

 

Note: The peculiarities of the spelling and pronunciation of some negative forms:

can't [ka:nt] shan't [ia:nt] won't [wountj

 

                                         Can

This modal verb has two forms: can-for the present tense and could-ior the past tense and for the subjunctive mood.

I can't dance now but 1 could when 1 was young. 1 wish I could go with you.

I. Can followed by the non-perfect infinitive expresses:

1. Physical and mental ability or capacity.

The notion of ability is also expressed by "to be able to".

Mary can speak English quite well but she can't write it at all

(can = to be able, to know how to...).

John can keep a secret if he wants to (can = to be capable of).

I can drive a car = 1 know how to...

I couldn't understand him when he spoke very fast (= was unable

to, was incapable of...).

He could (was , able to) speak English very well, when he was twelve.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           

The meaning of ability is expressed only by "to be able to" when the reference is to the future, as can, having no infinitive, has no future tense form.

Soon he will be able to speak English quite fluently.

Note: Can is interchangeable with to be able to when it denotes mere capacity. Though in such cases can /could is more usual.

I couldn't / was not able to do that new job; it was too difficult. This man could / was able to cure all diseases.                                                                                                                                                                                                 

But only  to be able to, is used to express attainment of something, achievement

through some  capacity. Thus to be able to often combines the idea of "ability" and

"achievement". In this case was able to means "managed to" or "succeeded in", and could is impossible.

2. Possibility.

    a) possibility due to circumstances:

Anybody can make a mistake.Ошибаться может каждый.

You can hardly blame him for that. Вряд ли можно его за это

винить.

I couldn't take your coat without paying you for it;

    b) possibility due to the existing rules of laws:

In old days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime. В старые времена можно было приговорить человека к, смерти за небольшое преступление.'                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            The Lower House alone can initiate financial measures. Только

нижняя палата может выносить* на рассмотрение финансовые

вопросы.

     с) possibility of the idea (the so-called "theoretical" possibility):

The railways can be improved. (It is possible for the railways to be improved, as they are not yet perfect.)

In general  statements  of possibility  can has roughly the same meaning as "sometimes".

The sea can be rough.-The sea is sometimes rough. Море иногда бывает бурным.

Can is generally used in questions about possibility and in statements about impossibility.

Can this be true? (Is it possible that this is true?) Неужели это правда? This can't be true. (It is impossible that this is true.)

3. Permission. Can we go home, Miss? Можно идти домой, мисс?

Не can go now. Теперь он может идти.

The teacher said we could go home. Учитель разрешил нам идти

домой.

Can is now more common than may (or might) to express the idea of permission.

4. Prohibition (it is found only with the negative form of the modal verb, as prohibition may be understood as the negation of permission-not to be allowed to...). It corresponds to the Russian нельзя, не надо.

You can't cross the street here. Здесь нельзя переходить улицу.

You can't touch the exhibits in a museum (it is not allowed).

— Can we stay here?—No, I'm afraid you can't. (It's not allowed.)

5. Request.

Can you hold on a minute, please?

Can I have some water?

Can you put the meat in salted water?

Could suggests a greater degree of politeness: Could you come again tomorrow?

II. Can followed by any form of the infinitive may express: 1. Strong doubt, improbability, incredulity. This meaning occurs only with the negative form of the modal verb.

He can't be working at this time (it's impossible that he is working...). He can't have seen it (it's impossible that he saw it).

It corresponds to the Russian не может быть, чтобы... Could is used instead of can to express greater doubt. Thus the difference between can and could is in the degree of expressiveness, could showing a greater degree of doubt or incredulity. The time-reference is indicated not by the form of the verb but by that of the infinitive.                                                                                                                                                             

He /  can’t  be so old. —He может быть, что он так стар,

 Can’t/ Couldn’t  be telling the truth.— He может быть, что он говорит правду.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     Can't | couldn’t have told the truth. — He может быть, чтобы он сказал  правду.

2. Reproach, a suggestion that a person should have done something, behaved in a certain way. This meaning is found only with the form could.

You could at least have met me at the station, couldn't you?

In this sense could is interchangeable with might.

3.Purpose. This meaning occurs only with the form could in clauses of purpose.

I wrote down the telephone number so that I could remember it.

Note some set expressions with the modal verb can:

Cannot /can't help doing smth. - He могу не делать что-то

When I saw him / couldn't help laughing .-Когда я увидел его, я не мог не засмеяться.

Cannot /can't but do smth.- не могу не...

Cannot but suggest...— Я не могу не предложить...

We cannot but hope he is right.- Нам остается только надеяться, что... (не можем не надеяться...)

One cannot but wonder - нельзя не задуматься

as can bе- ап intensifying expression

They are as pleased as can be.-Они очень (страшно) довольны.

It's as ugly as can be.-Это необычайно уродливо (трудно себе

представить что-либо более отвратительное).

 

                                                 

                                                   May

 

 This modal verb has two forms; may for the present tense and might for the past. '    The form might is used;

a) in indirect speech according to the rules of the sequence of tenses (though the verb could is preferable in this case).

He told me that I might go.

The librarian told the man that he might take the book home.

b) in some syntactical patterns.

However hard he might try, he will never manage to do the same.  I have bought you the book so that you may write your paper. I. May followed by the non-perfect infinitive expresses:

1. Permission. In this usage it expresses the meaning to have permission to, to be allowed to, to be permitted to.

You may go now (you are allowed to go).

May we leave this with you? (Are we allowed to...? Are we permitted

to...? Is it all right if we leave it here?)

The first two variants are formal, the last is informal. Might is used in polite requests for permission.

Might I use your telephone, please? , I wonder if / might borrow your book.

Can is now more common than may or might to express informally the idea of permission, but may is often used when talking of ourselves.

May /might I help you?

When the action was permitted and performed the expression was allowed to is preferable.

When translating the story we were allowed to use a dictionary, so I took Galperin's new dictionary.

2.Possibility of the fact (the so-called "factual possibility"). This meaning occurs only in affirmative sentences.

You may find all the books you want in the Lenin Library. (It is possible that you will find...)

The railways may be improved. (It is possible that the railways will be improved.

"Factual possibility" (may) is "stronger" than "theoretical possibility" (can). Thus the above sentence could suggest that there are definite plans for improvement. May expressing possibility is replaced by can in questions and in negative sentences.

3. Prohibition (only with the negative form of the modal verb).

You may not go swimming. (You are not allowed to...) —He смей... You may not enter the room until I say so'. - He смей...

The contracted form mayn't is very rare.

May is seldom used to express prohibition. There are other ways of expressing this idea which are more common. They arc mustn't, can't, and don't. Mustn't and can't are often found in negative answers to express prohibition instead of may not.

II. May (might) followed by any form of the infinitive denotes:

1. Supposition, uncertainty. May in this sense is synonymous with perhaps or maybe, and occurs in affirmative and negative statements.

This news is so strange that you may not believe it. (Perhaps you won't believe it.)

He may come or he may not. (Может быть, он придет, а может и нет.

She may not know that you are here. (Perhaps she doesn't know that you are here.)

Why hasn't he come? He may have been hurt. (Perhaps he has been hurt. We still don't know whether he has or has not.)

Why aren't you at the station? They may be arriving.

The non-perfect infinitive indicates reference to the present or future, that is it expresses a supposition or uncertainty about a present or future action.

They may arrive tonight or tomorrow.

The perfect infinitive indicates reference to the past.

May(might)'m the sense of supposition or uncertainty is not used in questions. Here a supposition, an uncertainty in questions is rendered by: Is it (he)likely? or Do you think...?

Is Mary likely to arrive tonight? Do you think he has already come?

2. Reproach This meaning  is  found  only in positive  statements and only with the form might as it is a reproach made about something that has not been done and thus implies some hypothetical wish.

You might at least offer to help.

In combination with the perfect infinitive it enders irritation (annoyance) that the action was not carried out.

You might have opened the door for me.

3- May /might partly loses its meaning when used in certain sentence patterns and is in such cases a quasi-subjunctive auxiliary:

a) in clauses of purpose:

Sit here so that I may see your face more clearly. He died so that others might live.

b) in clauses of concession:

Try as he might he will never be top of his class.

c) in object, predicative and appositive clauses after verbs or nouns expressing hope, wish, fear:

The doctor has fears that she may not live much longer. The prisoner had hopes that he might be set free.

Here are some expressions with the modal verb may I might: I may/might as well + infinitive-is a very mild and unemphatic way of expressing an intention.

I may as well take you with me. It can be used with other persons to suggest or recommend an action.

You may as well give him the letter.

Might just as well means "it would be equally good to" and is used to suggest alternative actions. Though the meaning is basically the same as in, "just" makes the sentence more emphatic.

I'll go on Monday by a slow train.

You might just as well wait till Tuesday and go by the fast one. I'll do it at six.

That's' far too late. You might just as well not do it at all.

 

                                               Must

 

 The modal verb must has only one form for the present tense. It may also be used in reported speech, after the verb in the past tense in the principal clause.

I knew I must go there too.

I. Must followed by the indefinite infinitive may express:

1. Immediate obligation or necessity or an obligation referring to the future. This meaning occurs in positive statements and questions.

We must begin before five or we shan't finish in time for our supper.

He must move the furniture himself. I can't help him. Must you really go so soon?

In this sense the verb must corresponds to the Russian надо, нужно, должен.

Do it if you must (если нужно, делайте). I must go now (мне нужно идти).

Note: Must expresses obligation or compulsion from the speaker's viewpoint (unlike 'have to', which involves some other authority than the speaker, such as official regulations, etc.).