Шпаргалка по "Английскому языку"

2. On the basis of the interrelation of lexical and grammatical types of meaning words fall into two classes: notional words and form words — a numerically small class of words with the highest frequency value.

3 Words of high frequency value are mostly characterised by polysemy, structural simplicity, neutral stylistic reference and emotive charge. They generally belong either to the native words or to the early borrowings which are already fully or almost fully assimilated.

Frequency also reflects the interdependence and comparative importance of individual meanings within the word. The basic meaning of the word is at the same time the meaning with the highest frequency value.

The development of vocabulary is largely due to the rapid flow of events, the progress of science and technology and emergence of new concepts in different fields of human activity.

Distinction should be made between the qualitative growth of the vocabulary as a result of semantic extension of the already available words and the numerical replenishing of vocabulary as a result of appearance of new vocabulary units.

There are three principal ways of the numerical growth of vocabulary: a) productive word-formation, b) various non-patterned ways of word creation, c) borrowings.

Productive word-formation is the most powerful source of the numerical growth of present-day English vocabulary.

There are various ways of non-patterned word creation. The two main types are lexicalisation and shortening.

9. The two main types of shortening are: a) transformations of word- groups into words which involve substantivisation, acronyms and blend- ings and b) clippings which consist in a change of the word-structure.

Borrowing as a source of vocabulary extension takes the shape of borrowing of morphemes, borrowing of actual words and loan-translations. Especially active nowadays is the formation of new words out of borrowed morphemes.

The exact number of vocabulary units in Modern English cannot be stated with any degree of certainty for a number of reasons:

a) Constant growth of Modern English word-stock.

b) Intrinsic heterogeneity of Modern English vocabulary.

Divergent views concerning the nature of basic vocabulary units connected with some crucial debatable problems of lexicology: homonymy, polysemy, phraseology, nonce-words.

The absence of a sharp and distinct border-line between English and foreign words and between modern and outdated English vocabulary units.

12. There is a considerable difference between the number of vocabulary units in Modern English word-stock and the number of vocabulary items in actual use.

The selection and number of vocabulary items for teaching purposes depends on the aims set before language learners.

 

 

 

 

 

17. homonymy  polysemy Просмотреть ещё раз!!!

Monosemantic words, i.e. words having only one meaning are comparatively few in number, these are mainly scientific terms, such -as hydrogen, molecule and the like. The bulk of English words are polysemantic, that is to say possess more than one meaning. The actual number of meanings of the commonly used words ranges from five to about a hundred. The word table, e.g., has at least nine meanings in Modern English: 1. a piece of furniture; 2. the persons seated at a table; 3. sing. the food put on a table, meals; 4. a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc.; 5. pl. slabs of stone; 6. words cut into them or written on them (the ten tables); ² 7. an orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.; 8. part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated on; 9. a level area, a plateau. Each of the individual meanings can be described in terms of the types of meanings discussed above.

In polysemantic words we are faced not with the problem of analysis of individual meanings, but primarily with the problem of the interrelation and interdependence of the various meanings in the semantic structure of one and the same word.

The word «polysemy» means «plurality of meanings»  it exists only in the language, not in speech. A word which has more than one meaning is called polysemantic.

Different meanings of a polysemantic word may come together due to the proximity of notions which they express. E.g. the word «blanket» has the following meanings: a woolen covering used on beds, a covering for keeping a horse warm, a covering of any kind /a blanket of snow/, covering all or most cases /used attributively/, e.g. we can say «a blanket insurance policy».

There are some words in the language which are monosemantic, such as most terms, /synonym, molecule, bronchites/, some pronouns /this, my, both/, numerals.

There are two processes of the semantic development of a word: radiation and concatination. In cases of radiation the primary meaning stands in the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays. Each secondary meaning can be traced to the primmary meaning. E.g. in the word «face» the primary meaning denotes «the front part of the human head» Connected with the front position the meanings: the front part of a watch, the front part of a building, the front part of a playing card were formed. Connected with the word «face» itself the meanings : expression of the face, outward appearance are formed.

In cases of concatination secondary meanings of a word develop like a chain. In such cases it is difficult to trace some meanings to the primary one. E.g. in the word «crust» the primary meaning «hard outer part of bread» developed a secondary meaning «hard part of anything /a pie, a cake/», then the meaning »harder layer over soft snow» was developed, then «a sullen gloomy person», then «impudence» were developed. Here the last meanings have nothing to do with the primary ones. In such cases homonyms appear in the language. It is called the split of polysemy.

In most cases in the semantic development of a word both ways of semantic development are combined.  

Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound or spelling, or both in sound and spelling.Homonyms can appear in the language not only as the result of the split of polysemy, but also as the result of levelling of grammar inflexions, when different parts of speech become identical in their outer aspect, e.g. «care» from «caru» and «care» from «carian». They can be also formed by means of conversion, e.g. «to slim» from «slim», «to water» from «water». They can be formed with the help of the same suffix from the same stem, e.g. «reader»/ a person who reads and a book for reading/.

Homonyms can also appear in the language accidentally, when two words coincide in their development, e.g. two native words can coincide in their outer aspects: «to bear» from «beran»/to carry/ and «bear» from «bera»/an animal/. A native word and a borrowing can coincide in their outer aspects, e.g. «fair» from Latin «feria» and «fair « from native «fager» /blond/. Two borrowings can coincide e.g. «base» from the French «base» /Latin basis/ and «base» /low/ from the Latin «bas» /Italian «basso»/.

Homonyms can develop through shortening of different words, e.g. «cab» from «cabriolet»,  «cabbage», «cabin».

            Classifications of homonyms.

Walter Skeat classified homonyms according to their spelling and sound forms and he pointed out three groups: perfect homonyms that is words identical in sound and spelling, such as : «school»  - «косяк рыбы» and «школа» ; homographs, that is words with the same spelling but pronounced differently, e.g. «bow» -/bau/ - «поклон» and /bou/ - «лук»; homophones that is words pronounced identically but spelled differently, e.g. «night» - «ночь» and «knight» - «рыцарь».

Another classification was suggested by A.I Smirnitsky. He added to Skeat´s classification one more criterion: grammatical meaning. He subdivided the group of perfect homonyms in Skeat´s classification into two types of homonyms: perfect which are identical in their spelling, pronunciation and their grammar form, such as :»spring» in the meanings: the season of the year, a leap, a source, and homoforms which coincide in their spelling and pronunciation but have different grammatical meaning, e.g. «reading» - Present Participle, Gerund, Verbal noun., to lobby - lobby .

A more detailed classification was given by I.V. Arnold. She classified only perfect homonyms and suggested four criteria of their classification: lexical meaning, grammatical meaning, basic forms and paradigms.

According to these criteria I.V. Arnold pointed out the following groups: a) homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings, basic forms and paradigms and different in their lexical meanings, e.g. «board» in the meanings «a council» and « a piece of wood sawn thin»; b) homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings and basic forms, different in their lexical meanings and paradigms, e.g. to lie - lied - lied, and to lie - lay - lain; c) homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, paradigms, but coinciding in their basic forms, e.g. «light» / «lights»/, «light» / «lighter», «lightest»/; d) homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, in their basic forms and paradigms, but coinciding in one of the forms of their paradigms, e.g. «a bit» and «bit» (from « to bite»).

In I. V. Arnold´s classification there are also patterned homonyms, which, differing from other homonyms, have a common component in their lexical meanings. These are homonyms formed either by means of conversion, or by levelling of grammar inflexions. These homonyms are different in their grammar meanings, in their paradigms, identical in their basic forms, e.g. «warm» - «to warm». Here we can also have unchangeable patterned homonyms which have identical basic forms, different grammatical meanings, a common component in their lexical meanings, e.g. «before» an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition. There are also homonyms among unchangeable words which are different in their lexical and grammatical meanings, identical in their basic foms, e.g. « for» - «для» and «for» - «ибо».

 

 

 

 

1/ The Phoneme Classification of

The branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonants and vowel sounds, syllabic structures, word accent and prosodic features is called phonology. Phonology investigates the social aspect of sounds, syllables, phrases and so on.

When we talk about the sounds of a language, the term “sound” can be interpreted in two rather different ways. In the first place, we can say that [t] and [d] are two different sounds in English. They contrast with each other to make a difference of meaning. Take, for example, [tu: - du:], [tik - dik], etc. But on the other hand, if we listen carefully to the [t] in “take” and compare it with the [t] in “at the”, we can hear that the 2 sounds are also not the same, the [t] of “take” is alveolar, while the [t] of “at the” is dental. In both examples the sounds differ in one articulatory feature only (t/d - voiceless/voiced; t/t^¶ - alveolar/dental). But in the second case the difference between the sounds has functionally no significance. It is perfectly clear, that the sense of the word “sound” in these 2 cases is different. To avoid this ambiguity, linguists use 2 separate terms: “phoneme” is used to mean “sound” in its contrastive sense, and “allophone” is used for sounds which are variants of a phoneme: they usually occur in different positions in the word, cannot contrast with each other, so they are not used to differentiate the meaning.

The Phoneme Theory was developed by  Prof. Baudouin de Courteney, the founder of the Kazan Linguistic School. There are several conceptions of the phoneme. One of them was suggested by L. V. Scherba. He described it as a functional, material and abstract unit. Another phonetician, V. A. Vassilyev, defined the phoneme like this: "Phoneme is the smallest language unit that exists in the form of speech sounds which can distinguish one word of the same language or one grammatical form of a word from another grammatical form of the same word".

Firstly, the phoneme is a functional unit. It means that the opposition of phonemes can differentiates the meaning of words and even the whole phrases: slow-blow; tooth-teeth; He was heard badly-He was hurt badly. Secondly, the phoneme is material, real and objective. It is realised in speech in the form of speech sounds, its allophones.

Those allophones which do not  change in the chain of speech (for example, when they occur in an isolated position) are called principal. At the same time there are predictable changes, which sounds undergo in different phonetic context (especially under the influence of the neighbouring sounds, intonation, etc.). Such allophones are called secondary.

The examples below illustrate the articulatory modifications of the phoneme [t] in various phonetic contexts:

[t]  in "tea" is a bit palatalized; in "not there" it is dental; in "not quite"  it loses its plosion; in "little" it is pronounced with the lateral plosion; in "not many" -  with the nasal plosion; in "try" it becomes post-alveolar; in "stare" - non-aspirated. In spite of the difference in the pronunciation of [t] in different positions it can be easily noticed that all its allophones possess some common features, all of them are forelingual, voiceless stops.

In learning English pronunciation the starting point should be, the articulation of the principal allophone, but special training of the subsidiary allophones should be provided too.

Apart from predictable changes there are stylistic, dialectal, individual, occasional modifications. In fact, we pronounce phones.

The third aspect of the phoneme is an abstract. Native speakers may not realise the difference between allophones, because this difference doesn’t affect the meaning. So native speakers abstract themselves from the difference between the allophones of the same phoneme because it has no functional value. At the same time they understand that they can’t change any of articulatory features which are common to all the allophones of the same phoneme without destroying the meaning. This particular features which are common to all the allophones of one phoneme are called the invariant of the phoneme. Neither of them can be changed without changing the meaning.

For example,  the invariant of [t] consists of the following articulatory features: occlusive, forelingual and voiceless. If we change the occlusive articulation for constrictive, [t] will be replaced by [s] (tea-sea; tick-sick); if we change the forelingual articulation for backlingual [t] will be replaced by [k] (bat-back; tick-kick); if the fortis articulation is changed for lenis [t] will be replaced by [d] (bet-bed; tear-bear).

The articulatory features of the invariant of the phoneme are relevant. The articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning are called  irrelevant (aspiration, for example, is a non-distinctive feature in the English language).

Any change in the invariant of the phoneme affects to meaning. Naturally, anyone who studies a foreign language makes mistakes in the articulation of some sounds. Scherba classifies the pronunciation mistakes as phonological and phonetic.

If any allophone of some phoneme is replaced by an allophone of a different phoneme, the mistake is called phonological, because the meaning of the word is affected. For example: debt-dead; beat-bit, bed-bad.

If an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by another allophone of the same phoneme the mistake is called phonetic. The meaning of the word does not change. Nevertheless, language learners are advised not to let phonetic mistakes into their pronunciation, as they cause their foreign accent.

MODIFICATIONS OF SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH

When a phoneme is articulated separately it displays all its characteristic features. But phonemes are seldom articulated in isolation. In speaking they are generally used in sentences consisting of a number of words, and, consequently, are pronounced in sequences of sounds, interrupted by pauses. There are actually some remarkable differences between the pronunciation of a word in isolation and of the same word in a block of connected speech. When phonemes are pronounced in sequences, we observe the phenomenon of adaptation - the speech organs adjust themselves to make a more convenient transition from one articulation to another. Such changes in the articulation of sounds in speech are mostly quite regular and predictable.They can be devided into some groups: assimilation, accommodation, vowel reduction and elision.

The modification of a consonant by a neighbouring consonant in the speech chain is known as assimilation. It may be of two kinds: historical and “living” or functioning. Classical examples of historical assimilation can be found in words borrowed from Norman-French: permission, measure. Here we see the adaptation of the articulation of [s] and [z] to the articulation of the [j]-phoneme.

We also distinguish between “obligatory” and “non-obligatory” assimilation. Obligatory assimilation occur in the speech of all persons who speak a certain language, no matter what style of speech is used. Non-obligatory assimilation appears in rapid speech and should be avoided.

In the adaptation of articulations is observed two principles: 1) the speech organs are prepared beforehand for the articulation of a sound that follow, and then it is called regressive (newspaper); or 2) the activity of speech organs continue after the sound has been articulated, in this case it is called progressive(gets).

     We also distinguish between complete and partial assimilation. When one or more features of the sounds are adapted, we have partial assimilation (tree). When all the features are adapted, we have a case of complete assimilation (horseshoe).

The term accommodation is used to denote the modification of consonants under the influence of vowels and vice versa. (never, men - vowels become slightly nasalized; pour- consonants become a bit labialised.

Vowel reduction is the weakening  of vowels in unstressed positions: ‘blackboard, ‘postman.

Elision is a complete loss of sounds, both vowels and consonants, is often observed in English. It is minimal in slow speech and maximal in rapid relaxed colloquial speech (has, does, is, don’t want).

English consonants in connected speech

Qualitative features of consonant sounds may be changed in the process of their interrelation in a speech chain.

Consonants are modified according to 1) the place of articulation: dental, post-alveolar…

2)the manner of articulation

1. Loss of plosion (partial regressive) - glad to see you, great trouble

2. Lateral plosion (partial regressive) - settle, at last

3. Nasal plosion (partial regressive) - not now, at night

English vowels in connected speech

The articulation of English vowels is adapted to that of consonants only to a very slight extent. To a Russian, they do not seem to change at all in connected speech compared with Russian vowels, which are strongly modified by consonants (palatalisation - ñïÿò, Þëÿ). Vowels between palatalised consonants are closer than between non-palatalised ones - äåòè/øåñò.

In English we can speak about the quantitative modification of vowels, when the shortening of the vowel length occurs before voiceless consonants: - he - heat. The same kind of modification can be found in an unstressed position - window, blackboard.

Qualitative modification of most vowels occurs in unstressed positions. In these cases the quality of the vowel is reduced to the neutral sound.

In rapid colloquial speech reduction or complete omission of the unstressed vowel can take place - literature, factory.

Stylistic modifications of sounds

Stylistic modifications are observed in the two large types of pronunciation - formal and informal. Formal speech suggests unemotional information on the part of the speaker. It is characterised by careful articulation and relatively slow speed. Informal speech is everyday conversation. The use of simplified sounds is typical here. guistic situations of communication also determine the degree of sound modifications.

For the stylistic modifications of sounds is also important to pay attention to the character of relationship between the speaker and the listener and the degree of formality in their discourse. Modifications also differs in prepared and non-prepared speech, in speaking, reading in monolog, in dialog, but such modifications are not reducted in speaker’s and listener’s minds, because they do not affect to the meaning.

 

8 INTONATION

Intonation is a language universal. There are no languages which are spoken as a monotone. When we speak we have to change intonation parameters.

Most people don’t pay attention to the intonation. We use it unconsciously. When people begin to study a foreign language they usually concentrate on sounds. A lot of them say that to study intonation you should have a special skills. First of all its difficult to hear all the shades of intonation of a foreign language, but it is more difficult to reproduce the right intonation.

Most linguists agree that  intonation is a complex, formed by significant variations of pitch, tempo and loudness. Some linguists add timber as the 4th component of intonation. Nowadays there is another term for intonation “prosody” which means intonation in the most general way. It is widely used in linguistic literature and seems more adequate.

Among the three components pitch and pitch movements  are considered to be the most important for functional aims.

On acoustic level pitch correlates with the frequency of the vibration of the vocal cords; loudness correlates with the amplitude of vibrations; tempo is a correlate of time. Further on we shall consider intonation in the terms of auditory level, which are more suitable for the aims of teaching.

Each syllable of the speech chain has a special pitch colouring. Some of the syllables have significant moves of tone up and down. Each syllable bears (обладает) a definite amount of loudness. Pitch movements are connected with loudness. Together with the tempo of speech they form an intonation pattern (интонационный рисунок), which is the basic unit of intonation.

     Intonation patterns serve to actualise syntagms in oral speech. A syntagm is a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complete (подл.-сказ., сущ,-прил,). In Phonetics actualised syntagms are called intonation groups. A phrase may contain more than one intonation group. The number of intonation groups depends on the length of the phrase and the degree of semantic importance given to various parts, etc. (The boy| was ‘not a model pupil - The boy was not a model ‘pupil).

    Pitch parameters can be devided into three components: the direction of pitch, pitch level and pitch range.