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Работа содержит ответы на вопросы по дисциплине "Английский язык"
1.. The Word as the Central Unit of the Language
2. Free Word Combinations and Set Expressions. Their Classification and Stylistic Use
3.. Synonyms and Antonyms in the English Language
4. Types of Word-Formation in Modern English
5. The Semantic Structure of the Word. Polysemy. Homonymy
6. The Word-Stock of the English Language
Classification of borrowings according to the language from which they were borrowed.
e)Scandinavian (skirt, scream, call, call, die, egg)
f) German (zinc, cobalt, iceberg, lobby, kindergarten)
g) Dutch ( skipper, dock, leak)
Etymological doublets – words that are borrowed twice (skirt-shirt, castle-chateau)
International words – (gene, football, shorts, piano).
The word-stock of the English language is divided into three main layers:
the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer.
The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property, which unites the different groups of words within the layer may be called its aspect.
The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. This makes the layer more or less stable.
The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character. This makes it unstable, fleeting. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. This makes the layer the most stable of all.
The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words:
The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups:
The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are called standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special colloquial(non-literary) vocabulary.
14. SYNONYMS нужно в Печать !!
Synonyms are words different in their outer aspects, but identical or similar in their inner aspects. In English there are a lot of synonyms, because there are many borrowings, e.g. hearty / native/ - cordial/ borrowing/. After a word is borrowed it undergoes desynonymization, because absolute synonyms are unnecessary for a language. However, there are some absolute synonyms in the language, which have exactly the same meaning and belong to the same style, e.g. to moan, to groan; homeland, motherland etc. In cases of desynonymization one of the absolute synonyms can specialize in its meaning and we get semantic synonyms, e.g. «city» /borrowed/, «town» /native/. The French borrowing «city» is specialized. In other cases native words can be specialized in their meanings, e.g. «stool» /native/, «chair» /French/.
Sometimes one of the absolute synonyms is specialized in its usage and we get stylistic synonyms, e.g. «to begin»/ native/, «to commence» /borrowing/. Here the French word is specialized. In some cases the native word is specialized, e.g. «welkin» /bookish/, «sky» /neutral/.
Stylistic synonyms can also appear by means of abbreviation. In most cases the abbreviated form belongs to the colloquial style, and the full form to the neutral style, e.g. «examination´, «exam».
Among stylistic synonyms we can point out a special group of words which are called euphemisms. These are words used to substitute some unpleasant or offensive words, e.g «the late» instead of «dead», «to perspire» instead of «to sweat» etc.
There are also phraseological synonyms, these words are identical in their meanings and styles but different in their combining with other words in the sentence, e.g. «to be late for a lecture» but «to miss the train», «to visit museums» but «to attend lectures» etc.
In each group of synonyms there is a word with the most general meaning, which can substitute any word in the group, e.g. «piece» is the synonymic dominant in the group «slice», «lump», «morsel». The verb « to look at» is the synonymic dominant in the group «to stare», «to glance», «to peep». The adjective «red´ is the synonymic dominant in the group «purple», «scarlet», «crimson».
When speaking about the sources of synonyms, besides desynonymization and abbreviation, we can also mention the formation of phrasal verbs, e.g. «to give up» - «to abandon», «to cut down» - «to diminish».
ANTONYMS
Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style, expressing contrary or contradictory notions.
V.N. Comissarov in his dictionary of antonyms classified them into two groups : absolute or root antonyms /»late» - «early»/ and derivational antonyms / «to please´ - «to displease»/ . Absolute antonyms have different roots and derivational antonyms have the same roots but different affixes. In most cases negative prefixes form antonyms / un-, dis-, non-/. Sometimes they are formed by means of suffixes -ful and -less.
The number of antonyms with the suffixes ful- and -less is not very large, and sometimes even if we have a word with one of these suffixes its antonym is formed not by substituting -ful by less-, e.g. «successful» -»unsuccessful», «selfless» - «selfish». The same is true about antonyms with negative prefixes, e.g. «to man» is not an antonym of the word «to unman», «to disappoint» is not an antonym of the word «to appoint».
The difference between derivational and root antonyms is not only in their structure, but in semantics as well. Derivational antonyms express contradictory notions, one of them excludes the other, e.g. «active»- «inactive». Absolute antonyms express contrary notions. If some notions can be arranged in a group of more than two members, the most distant members of the group will be absolute antonyms, e.g. «ugly» , «plain», «good-looking», «pretty», «beautiful», the antonyms are «ugly» and «beautiful».
Leonard Lipka in the book «Outline of English Lexicology» describes different types of oppositeness, and subdivides them into three types:
a) complementary, e.g. male -female, married -single,
b) antonyms, e.g. good -bad,
c) converseness, e.g. to buy - to sell.
In his classification he describes complimentarity in the following way: the denial of the one implies the assertion of the other, and vice versa. «John is not married» implies that «John is single». The type of oppositeness is based on yes/no decision. Incompatibility only concerns pairs of lexical units.
Antonymy is the second class of oppositeness. It is distinguished from complimentarity by being based on different logical relationships. For pairs of antonyms like good/bad, big/small only the second one of the above mentioned relations of implication holds. The assertion containing one member implies the negation of the other, but not vice versa. «John is good» implies that «John is not bad», but «John is not good» does not imply that «John is bad». The negation of one term does not necessarily implies the assertion of the other.
An important linguistic difference from complementaries is that antonyms are always fully gradable, e.g. hot, warm, tepid, cold.
Converseness is mirror-image relations or functions, e.g. husband/wife, pupil/teacher, preceed/follow, above/below, before/after etc.
«John bought the car from Bill» implies that «Bill sold the car to John». Mirror-image sentences are in many ways similar to the relations between active and passive sentences. Also in the comparative form: »Y is smaller than X, then X is larger than Y».
L. Lipka also gives the type which he calls directional opposition up/down, consiquence opposition learn/know, antipodal opposition North/South, East/West, ( it is based on contrary motion, in opposite directions.) The pairs come/go, arrive/depart involve motion in different directions. In the case up/down we have movement from a point P. In the case come/go we have movement from or to the speaker.
L. Lipka also points out non-binary contrast or many-member lexical sets. Here he points out serially ordered sets, such as scales / hot, warm, tepid, cool, cold/ ; colour words / black, grey, white/ ; ranks /marshal, general, colonel, major, captain etc./ There are gradable examination marks / excellent, good, average, fair, poor/. In such sets of words we can have outer and inner pairs of antonyms. He also points out cycles, such as units of time /spring, summer, autumn, winter/ . In this case there are no «outermost» members.
Not every word in a language can have antonyms. This type of opposition can be met in qualitative adjectives and their derivatives, e.g. beautiful- ugly, to beautify - to uglify, beauty - ugliness. It can be also met in words denoting feelings and states, e.g. respect - scorn, to respect - to scorn, respectful - scornful, to live - to die, alive - dead, life - death. It can be also met among words denoting direction in space and time, e.g. here - there, up - down , now - never, before - after, day - night, early - late etc.
If a word is polysemantic it can have several antonyms, e.g. the word «bright» has the antonyms «dim», «dull», «sad».
Билет 15
Types of Word-Formation in Modern English.
By word-building are understood processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language. Word-building provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language. The four types (root words, derived words, compounds, shortenings) represent the main structural types of Modern English words, and conversion, derivation and composition the most productive ways of word-building.
Structurally words consist of smaller units which are called morphemes. Morphemes do not occur as free forms but only as constituents of words. Yet they possess meanings of their own.
All morphemes are subdivided into two large classes: roots and affixes, which fall into prefixes preceding the root in the structure of the word re-read and suffixes which follow the root teach-er).
Words which consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word-building known as affixation (or derivation).
Derived words are extremely numerous in the English vocabulary. The words which has only a root morpheme in its structure so-called root word. This type is widely represented by a great number of words belonging to the original English stock or to earlier borrowings (house, room, book, work, port, street, table, etc.).
The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. Affixes can also be classified into productive and non-productive types. By productive affixes we mean the ones, which take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language development.
The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. ( e.g. «educate» is a verb, «educatee» is a noun. There are different classifications of suffixes :
1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech:
a) noun-forming suffixes, such as : -er (teacher), -dom (wisdom),
b) adjective-forming suffixes, such as : - less(harmless),ous (prestigious),
c) verb-forming suffixes, such as -ize (computerize) , -ify (micrify),
d) adverb-forming suffixes , such as : -ly (quickly), -ward (tableward),
e) numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy).
2. Semantic classification . Suffixes canchange the lexical meaning of the stem
a) the agent of the action, e.g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent
(student),
b) nationality, e.g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English),
c) collectivity, e.g -ship(readership), -ati ( literati),
d) diminutiveness, e.g. -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling),
-ette (kitchenette),
e) quality, e.g. -ness (happyness), -ity (posibility).
3. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of stems are subdivided into:
a) suffixes added to verbal stems, such as : -er (commuter), -ing(suffering)
b) suffixes added to noun stems, such as : -less (smogless), ful(roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish
(childish),
c) suffixes added to adjective stems, such as : -en (weaken), -ly
(pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).
4. Origin of suffixes. Here we can point out the following groups:
a) native (Germanic), such as -er,-ful, -less, -ly.
b) Romanic, such as : -tion, -ment, -able, -eer.
c) Greek, such as : -ist, -ism, -ize.
d) Russian, such as -nik.
(cheeseburger), -aholic (workaholic) etc.
Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes used in notional word un- (unhappy)and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g. over- (overhead) ( cf over the table ).
The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But the recent research showed that about
twenty-five prefixes in Modern English form one part of speech from another
(bebutton, interfamily, postcollege etc).
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles :
1. Semantic classification :
a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as : in- (invaluable), non-(nonformals), un- (unfree) etc,
b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: re- (reread), dis- (disconnect),
c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as : inter-(interplanetary), ex- (ex-student), etc.
2. Origin of prefixes:
a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- etc.
b) Romanic, such as : in-, de-, ex-, re- etc.
c) Greek, such as : sym-, hyper- etc.
Composition
This type of word-building, in which new words are produced by combining two or more stems,.
Compounds are not homogeneous in structure. Traditionally three types are distinguished: neutral, morphological and syntactic.
In neutral compounds the process of compounding is realised without any linking elements, as in blackbird, shop-window, sunflower, bedroom, tallboy, etc. There are three subtypes of neutral compounds depending on the structure of the constituent stems:
The neutral compounds consisting of simple affixless stems blackbird.
Compounds which have affixes in their structure are called derived compounds. E. g. absent-mindedness
The third subtype of neutral compounds is called contracted compounds. These words have a shortened stem in their structure: TV-set
Morphological compounds are few in number. This type is non-productive. The words in which two compounding stems are combined by a linking vowel e. g. Anglo-Saxon, handicraft
Syntactic compounds are formed from segments of speech good-for-nothing, mother-in-law, sit-at-home.)
The semantic aspect of compound words is of correlations of the separate meanings of the constituent parts and the actual meaning of the compound. question, let us consider the following groups of examples.
(1) Classroom - meaning can really be described as the sum of their constituent meanings. football
In these compounds one of the components (or both) has changed its meaning football is not a ball but a gamen. It is clear that in all these compounds the meaning of the whole word cannot be defined as the sum of the constituent meanings.
Shortening
Shortenings are produced in two different ways. The first is to make a new word from a syllable (rarer, two) of the original word. The latter may lose its beginning (as in phone made from telephone, fence from defence), its ending (as vac from vacation, props from properties, ad from advertisement) or both the beginning and ending (as in flu from influenza, fridge from refrigerator).
The second way of shortening is to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group: U.N.O. ['ju:neu] from the United Nations Organisation, B.B.C. from the British Broadcasting Corporation, M.P. from Member of Parliament.
Both types of shortenings are characteristic of informal speech.
in English can be formed not only by means of composition but also by means of :
a) reduplication, In reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes as in bye-bye (coll, for good-bye) or with a variation of the root-vowel or consonantas in ping-pong, chit-chat (this second type is called gradational reduplication).
b) conversion Conversion is referred to as an affixless way of word-building. conversion as amorphological way of forming words when one part of speech is formed from
another part of speech by changing its
paradigm, e.g. to form the verb «to dial» from the noun «dial» we change the paradigm of the noun (adial,dials) for the paradigm of a regular verb (I dial, he dials, dialed,dialing)
c) back formation In these case the verb was made from the noun by subtracting last morpheme buglar – to bugle
d) sound-immitation It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different sounds of human beings, such as : to whisper, to giggle, animals, birds, insects, such as : to hiss, to buzz, to bark, to moo, nature and objects, such as : to splash, to rustle
The Word-Stock of the English
2. On the basis of the interrelation of lexical and grammatical types of meaning words fall into two classes: notional words is the largest class, having a low frequency of occurrence and form words — a numerically small class of words with the highest frequency value. In notional words which are used in speech as names of objects of reality, their qualities, names of actions, processes, states the lexical meaning is predominant. In the majority of form words (prepositions, articles, conjunctions), which primarily denote various relations between notional words, it is the grammatical meaning that dominates over their lexical meaning. The difference between notional and form words may be also described in terms of open and closed sets of vocabulary units.2
4.The development of vocabulary is largely due to the rapid flow of events, the progress of science and technology and emergence of new concepts in different fields of human activity. As has been already mentioned, no vocabulary of any living language is ever stable but is constantly changing, growing and decaying. The changes occurring in the vocabulary are due both to linguistic and non-linguistic causes, but in most cases to the combination of both. Words may drop out altogether as a result of the disappearance of the actual objects they denote. But the number of new words that appear in the language is so much greater than those that drop out or become obsolete, that the development of vocabularies may be described as a process of never-ending growth.
5.Distinction should be made between the qualitative growth of the vocabulary as a result of semantic extension of the already available words and the numerical replenishing of vocabulary as a result of appearance of new vocabulary units.
The growth of the vocabulary reflects not only the general progress made by mankind but also the peculiarities of the way of life of the speech community in which the new words appear, the way its science and culture tend to develop.
The analysis of the development of the vocabulary of Modern English shows that there are two aspects of the growth of the language — the appearance of new lexical items which increase the vocabulary numerically and the appearance of new meanings of old words.
Structurally new vocabulary items represent two types of lexical units: words and word-group atomic pile — ‘reactor´, etc.
Words in their turn comprise various structural types: 2
simple words, zebra — ´street crossing-place, marked by black and white stripes´;
derived words, such as centrism — ‘a middle-of-the road or a moderate position in polities´, a preppie — ‘a student or graduate of a preparatory school (sl.)´;
c)compounds, e.g.; house-husband —
6. U.S. ‘a married man who manages a household´, etc. The analysis of new words for their derivational structure shows a marked predominance of derived and compound words and a rath
7. There are two ways of enriching the vocabulary as has been mentioned above: A. vocabulary extension — the appearance of new lexical items. New vocabulary units appear mainly as a result of:
1. productive or patterned ways of word-formation;
2. non-patterned ways of word-creation;
3. borrowing from other languages. B. semantic extension — the appearance of new meanings of existing words which may result in homonyms.
8.Productive word-formation is the most powerful source of the numerical growth of present-day English vocabulary.
There are various ways of non-patterned word creation. The two main types are lexicalisation and shortening.
9. The two main types of shortening are: a) transformations of word- groups into words which involve substantivisation, acronyms and blend- ings and b) clippings which consist in a change of the word-structure.
Borrowing as a source of vocabulary extension takes the shape of borrowing of morphemes, borrowing of actual words and loan-translations. Especially active nowadays is the formation of new words out of borrowed morphemes.
The exact number of vocabulary units in Modern English cannot be stated with any degree of certainty for a number of reasons:
a) Constant growth of Modern English word-stock.
b) Intrinsic heterogeneity of Modern English vocabulary.
Divergent views concerning the nature of basic vocabulary units connected with some crucial debatable problems of lexicology: homonymy, polysemy, phraseology, nonce-words.
The absence of a sharp and distinct border-line between English and foreign words and between modern and outdated English vocabulary units.
12. There is a considerable difference between the number of vocabulary units in Modern English word-stock and the number of vocabulary items in actual use.
The selection and number of vocabulary items for teaching purposes depends on the aims set before language learners.
1. The comparative value and place of the word in the vocabulary system is conditioned by the interdependence of the structural, semantic, stylistic and etymological aspects of the words which is brought out most vividly in the frequency value attached to each word.