Шпаргалка по "Английскому языку"

КРАТКИЕ КОНСПЕКТЫ ОТВЕТОВ  НА ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЕ ВОПРОСЫ ПО ЛЕКСИКОЛОГИИ

1..  The Word as the Central Unit of the Language

2. Free Word  Combinations and Set Expressions. Their Classification and  Stylistic Use

3.. Synonyms and Antonyms in the English Language

4. Types of  Word-Formation in Modern English

5. The Semantic Structure of the Word. Polysemy. Homonymy

6. The Word-Stock of the English Language

 

 

 

1. The word as the ctntral unit of the language system.

 

The word is the basic unit of language, uniting meaning and form, consisting of one or more morphemes. Morphemes are also meaningful elements, but they cannot be used independently. Words can be used as a complete utterance (Listen!).

Word-meaning is not homogeneous; there are several types of meaning.

      Grammatical meaning – can be found in identical sets of individual forms of different words (e.g. the tense meaning in the word-forms of words of verbs (worked, caught, asked…).

      Lexical meaning – unlike the grammatical meaning it is identical in all the forms of the word.

      Both the lexical and the grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning as neither can exist without the other.

      A paradigm – is a system showing a word in all its word-forms. The lexical meaning is the same throughout the paradigm, the grammatical meaning varies from one form to another.

      Part-of-speech meaning. Lexical units are classified into major word-classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) and minor classes (articles, prepositions, conjunctions…).

      Denotational and Connotational meaning.

      Denotational meaning – the component of meaning that makes communication possible, the leading one. Connotational meaning – the additional component.

      E.g.: notorious → “widely known”   +  for criminal acts,           (evaluative connotation,

                                                                             bad traits of character                 negative)

                      to glance  → “ to look”              + briefly                            (connotation of duration)

      Connotatonal meaning →     stylistic reference (stylistically words can be roughly subdivided

           ↓                                       into literary, neutral and colloquial layers).

      Emotive charge

     (varies in different word-classes.

      In interjections, for example, it prevails – Oh!) 

     Lexical meaning – notion.

    A word is  a language unit, while a notion is a unit of thinking. There are words which do not express any notion but have lexical meaning. Interjections express emotions, but not notions, but they have lexical meanings (Alas!) ← disappointment. Notions, as  a ruleare international, meanings can be nationally limited. The number of meanings does not correspond to the number of words.

    A word can be divided into smaller sense units – morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest meaningful language units.

    Semantically morphemes fall into root and non-root morphemes.

    Structurally morphemes fall into free (coincides with the stem or a word  form – e.g. friend ); bound morphemes ( occurs only as a constituent part of a word. Here belong: affixes, prefixes, all unique roots and pseudo-roots. - e.g. –ceive in perceive,  theor- in theory); semi-free or semi-bound (can function both as an affix and as a free morpheme – e.g. man).   

Lexical	Grammatical
Roots of words which express the lexical meaning of the word , they coincide with the stem of simple words.	Function words: articles, conjunctions and prepositions (the, with, and).
Affixes: prefixes (dis-), suffixes (-ish), completives (combining forms –e.g.poly-clinic); blocked or unique root morphemes (Fri-day).	Inflexions(endings) –s for the plural of nouns.

    Morphemes can also be lexical and grammatical.

Allomorphs (or morpheme variants) – morphemes that have different phonetic shapes (please, leasing, pleasure, pleasant).

Semi-affixes  are both bases (основы) and derivational prefixes. (half- →half-broken, half-eaten;

ill- ill-fed).

 

 

2. Free Word  Combinations and Set Expressions. Their Classification and  Stylistic Use

 

 

Free word groups present combinations of  words which display structural, semantic and syntactic relation between the units/ There may be differentstructural types of word combinations subordinate  (silent people) and coordinate ( children and grown-ups) word combinations, Subordinate  word combinations are nominal(a red cap), verbal  (went slowly)? adverbal (very much)

 

Phraseological units are word-groups that exist in the language as ready-made units. Like words, they express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. They are also called idioms by British and American lexicographers. Unlike phraseological units proper, proverbs and sayings do not always function as word-equivalents.

 

Semantic classification.

V.V.Vinogradov classified phraseological units according to the degree of motivation of their meaning.

1) Fusions. The degree of motivation  is very low, they are highly idiomatic, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meaning of its components, cannot  be translated word for word into other languages (at sixes and sevens, red tape; бить баклуши).

2) Unities. The meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorically or metonymically) → to play the first fiddle.

3) Collocations. Words are combined in their original meaning, but their combinations are different in different languages. (bear a grudge- bear malice). 

 

Structural classification.

(  A.I. Smirnitsky)

One-top units (are like affixed words)

1. units of the type to give up (to art up, to nose out).
2. Units of the type to be tired (to be interested in).
3. Prepositional-nominal  phraseological units. They are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs(on the doorstep, on the nose).

Two-top units (are like compound words).

a) attributive-nominal (a month of Sundays –целая вечность)

b) verb-nominal phraseological units ( to read between the lines – понимать скрытый смысл)

c) phraseological repetitions (now or never – теперь или никогда).

 

Syntactical classification.

I.V. Arnold classified phraseological units as parts of speech.

a) noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person, a living being (latchkey kids –  ребенок работающих родителей)

b) verb phraseological units, denoting an action, a state (to be on  the beam- быть в курсе дела)

с) adjective phraseologisms  denoting a quality.(loose and goose – нескладный)

d) adverb phraseologisms (tooth and nail – изо всех сил)

e) preposition phraseologisms  (in the course of, on the stroke of)

f) interjection phraseologisms (Catch me! – ни за что!)

In I.V. Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents: proverbs (are usually metaphorical – Too many cooks spoil the broth) and sayings (are, as a rule, non-metaphorical - Where there is a will, there is a way).

A.V. Kunin classified phraseological units  according to the way they are formed.

 

Primary ways:

1. by means of transferring the meaning of terminological  word-groups ( to link up – 1.стыковать космические корабли.2. знакомиться)
2. simile, contrast, metaphor ( in a nutshell –короче говоря)
3. alliteration (a sad sack –несчастный случай)
4. rhyming (by hook or by crook)
5. using synonyms (to pick and choose)
6. by means of expressiveness (Hear, hear!)
7. distorting a word-group ( odds and ends)
8. using archaisms ( in brown study means “in gloomy meditation”)
9. using sentence in a different sphere of life (that cock won’t fight – can be used metaphorically
10. using unreal images ( to have butterflies in one’s stomach  -  испытывать волнение)

 Secondary ways:

1. conversion  (to vote with one’s feet → vote with one’s feet)
2. changing the grammar form ( Make hay while the sun shines is transferred into a verbal phrase – to make hay while the sun shines)
3. analogy ( curiosity killed the cat – care killed the cat)
4. contrast ( kiss of death – kiss of life)
5. shortening (you can’t make a silk purse out of  a sow’s ear → to make a sow’s ear)
6. borrowing ( to take the bull by the horns -Latin)

 

3. Polysemy and Homonymy

The word polysemy means plurality of meanings. It exists only in the language, not in the speech. A word which has more than one meaning is called polysemantic. Very few words are monosemantic, these are usually terms. (molecule, bronchitis).

Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound or spelling, or both in sound and spelling.

Walter Skeat classified homonyms according to their spelling and sound forms:

1. perfect homonyms (identical  in sound and spelling) school 1.косяк рыбы, 2. школа.
2. Homographs (the same spelling, but different pronounciation) bow [bau] -поклон, [bәu]- лук.
3. Homophones (pronounced identically, but spelt differently) night  ↔ knight

A.I.Smirnitsky added to Skeat’s classification one more criterion: grammatical meaning.

1) perfect homonyms (identical in their spelling, pronunciation and grammar form (spring –1.весна, 2.источник.

2) homoforms (coincide in their spelling but have different grammatical meaning) to thin(v.) –thin(adj.)

I.V. Arnold classified only perfect homonyms and suggested 4 criteria for their classification: lexical meaning, grammatical meaning, basic forms and paradigms:

1) homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings, basic forms and paradigms and different in their lexical meanings ( board -  1.совет; 2.доска)

2) homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings and basic forms, but different in their lexical meanings and paradigms (to lie-lied-lied…. to lie-lay-lain)

3) homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, paradigms, but coinciding in their basic forms ( light(lights) – light –lighter- the lightest)

4) homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, in their basic forms and paradigms, but coinciding in one of the forms of their paradigms ( a bit and  bit( from to bite))

Homonyms can appear in the language as a result of diverging meaning development ( Modern English flower and flour originally were one word) and convergent sound development ( MnE love-(to) love and OE lufu – lufian)

Wor

 

 

5. Synonyms and antonyms

 

                                                                     Synonyms

                   Absolute synonyms (to moan-to groan, noun-substantive, to begin-to commence, homeland-motherland)

Relative or ideographic synonyms – differ in additional implications (to look –to stare – to gaze –to peep – to glance- to peer;  red- purple-scarlet-crimpson)

Stylistic synonyms ( differ in stylistic connotations: father-daddy-parent)

Contextual synonyms (I’ll go to the shop and get some bread =I’ll go to the shop and buy some bread).

Euphemisms ( lavatory → powder room, restroom, WC)

Superstitious taboos (to die → to cease to exist, to breathe one’s last, to kick the bucket)

Lexical variants (laughter-laugh)

Paronyms (to affect –to effect)

Sources of synonymy.

1. borrowings (freedom – liberty)
2. dialects long distance call –trunk call)
3. set-expressions (to choose – to  pick out)
4. wordbuilding: shortening (exam); conversion (to laugh – a laugh)
5. phrasal verbs ( to give up – to abandon)

 

                                      Antonyms

Derivational (happy-unhappy)

Root antonyms (right- wrong)

Antonyms usually appear in pairs. Most antonyms are  adjectives and verbs.

If a word is polysemantic, it can have several antonyms/

 

 

 

6. The most productive ways of word-formation

 

WORDBUILDING

                                                              Affixation

Suffixation.

Suffixes can be classified:

1. part-of-speech classification:

1. noun-forming ( -er)

2. adjective-forming (-less)
3. verb-forming (-ify)
4. adverb-forming (-wise)
5. numeral-forming (-ty)

 

2. Semantic classification:
1. the agent of the action (-er0
2. nationality (-ian’)
3. collectivity (-dom)
4. diminutiveness (-let, -ette)
5. quality (-ness)
6. feminine gender (-ess)
7. abstract notion (-hood0
8. derogatory meaning (-ard, -ster)
3. Lexico-grammatical:
1. suffixes added to verbal stems (-er, -ing, -able)
2. suffixes added to noun stems (-ful, ster,-nik)
3. suffixes added to adjective stems (-ly, -ish, -ness, -en)
4. Origin of suffixes:
1. native ( -er, -ful, -ly, -dom, -ed, -en, -hood, -ing)
2. Romanic ( (-tion, -ment, -able/ible, -ard)
3. Greek ( -ist, -ism, -ize)
4. Russian (-nik)

 

5. Productivity :
1. productive (-er, -ize,-ly,-ness)
2. semi-productive ( -eer, -ette,--ward)
3. non-productive ( -ard, -th)

 

6. Structure :

           a)simple (-er, -ist)

           b) compound ( -ical, -ation, -manship

       Preffixes :

1. Semantic classificaton :
1. negative meaning (in-,non-, un-)
2. denoting repetition or reversative actions ( de-, dis, re-)
3. denoting time, space and degree relations ( inter-, hyper-, ex-,pre-)
2. origin of prefixes:
1. native ( germanic- un-, over-, under-)
2. Romanic (ex-, re-,de-)
3. .Greek ( sym-,hyper-)

        

                                               Composition.

The structural  unity of a compound word depends upon: the unity of stress, solid or hyphenated spelling, semantic unity, unity of morphological and syntactical functioning.

Ways of forming compound words:

 

Reduplication	Partial conversion from word-groups	Back formation from compound nouns	analogy	Contrast
Too-too Rope-ripe Toy-boy	Can-do Make-up	To baby-sit To finger-print	Lie-in (sit-in) Brown-gain (brain-drain)	Brain-gain

English compounds can be classified according to:

1. the parts of speech:

nouns (glpbe-trotter), adjectives ( free-for-all), verbs (to honeymoon), adverbs ( headfirst), prepositions ( into), numerals ( fifty-five)

 

2. According to the way the components are joined together:
1. neutral (ballpoint), morphological ( sportsman), syntactical ( here-and-now, do-or-die)
3. According to their structure :
1. compound words proper( train-sick), compound-affixed ( videoplayer), compound-shortened words ( Eurodollar)
4. According to the relations between the components:
1. subordinative compounds : comparative relations (eggshell-thin), limiting relations (knee-deep), time relations ( summer-house), , sex relations (she-goat)
2. Coordinative relations : compound relations where one person has two functions (woman-doctor), tautological compounds ( roadway

   5) According to the order ( direct (syntactic), indirect ( nuclear-free)

   6) According to the meaning :idiomatic and non-idiomatic.

                                               Conversion

     N---V  ( to eye, to crowd, to fish, to winter)

      V----N ( a jump, a sleep, a scold)

             

                                                Abbreviation       

Graphical abbreviation:

of latin origin (e.g., a.m., No., ie)

of native origin (Mon – Monday, Aug – August, Yorks – Yorkshive; Mr, Mrs, Ms, col – colonel; BA – Bachelor of Arts;

m   - can be read as: male, married, masculine, metre, mile, million, minute.

 

 

 

Initial abbreviation (initialisms)

 

1. with alphabetical reading (UK)
2. read as words (acronyms) (UNESCO)
3. coincide with words (NOW, CLASS)

 

CLIPPING:

1. the beginning of word is clipped (apheresis)

copter   ←   helicopter

2. the middle of the word is clipped (syncope)

maths ←  mathematics

3. the end is clipped (apocope)

expo (exposition); в русском: уже – уж, или – иль.

Sometimes we have a combination of apocope with apheresis

tec (detective), van (avantguard).

 

Secondary ways of wordbuilding.

 

Sound interchange

(to strike – stroke, to sing – song, blood – bleed,  life – to live)

Stress interchange

(to ex’port – ‘export,   to re’cord – ‘record,  to  ex’tract  -  ‘extract)

Sound imitation

1. sounds produced by human beings (to giggle, to whistle)
2. sounds produced by animals, birds… (to bark, to twitter)
3. sounds produced by nature and objects (to splash, to bubble)

 

BLENDING

Here two ways of word-building are combined: abbreviation and composition. As a result we have a compound-affixed word

Smog = smoke + fog; chunnel = channel  tunnel.

 

BACK FORMATION (or DISAFFIXATION)

The final morpheme of a word is dropped as a result of misunderstanding the structure of a borrowedword.

(beggar was borrowed from French, → beg.)

(to bach from bachelor)

 

 

6.The Word stock of the English language

 

Etymological survey of the English word-stock

 

Native words. They constitute only 30% of the English vocabulary, are the most frequently used words.

Indo-European – the oldest layer: words denoting kinship (father, pater, Vater); words denoting animals and birds (cat, Katze,кот); parts of a human body (heart, Hertz, сердце);

Common Germanic –  (German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic) : summer, winter, life, shoe, buy, burn, meet, rise, see, broad, dead, deaf, deep  etc.

Native words have a great wordbuilding capacity, they are mostly  polysemantic.

BORROWINGS.

More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings. Mostly they are words of Romanic origin ( Latin, French, Italian, Spanish). Source of borrowing – the language from which the word was taken. The origin of borrowing – the language to which the word may be traced. (paper ←Fr papier ←Lat papyrus← Gr papyrus).

English now has become a giving language, a lingua franca of the 21^st century.

Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect.

1. Phonetic borrowings (loan words proper)  labour, travel, table
2. Translation loans (masterpiece -German, to take the bull by the horns –Latin)
3. Semantic borrowings (gift – OE «выкуп за жену», MnE «дар, подарок»)
4. Morphemic borrowings (-able)

Classification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation.

2. Completely assimilated (are not felt as foreign words – capital, service, gate, correct)
3. Partly assimilated (non-assimilated semantically –taiga, steppe; non-assimilated grammatically – phenomenon-phenomena; non-assimilated phonetically –voice, zero; partly assimilated graphically –chaos, psychology)
4. Non- assimilated (barbarisms – dolce vita, coup d’etat)