(1)Synonyms are usually defined as words belonging to one part
of speech,close in meaning and interchangeable in some contexts.Synonyms
are characterized by either semantic relations of equivalence or by
the semantic relations of proximity.The degree of semantic proximity
is best of all estimated in terms of the aspects of meaning(the denotational,the
connotational,the pragmatic aspect)The highest degree of proximity’s
observed in synonyms which have similar denotational aspects but differ
either in the connotational or the pragmatic aspect of meaning.There’re:Stylistic synonymy-implies
no interchangeability in context because the underlying situations are
different.They’re smilar in the denotational aspect,but different
in the pragmatic(and connotational)[dad-father].Ideographic
synonymy-presents a still lower degree of semantic proximity
and is observed when the connotational and the pragmatic aspects are
similar,but there’re certain differences in the denotational aspect
of meaning of 2 words[shape-form].Ideographic
- stylistic synonymy-is characterized by the lowest degree of
semantic proximity.They differ both in the denotational and the connotational(and
pragmatic)aspects[ask-inquire].Synonymic dominant is the
most general term containing the specific features rendered by all the
other members of the synonymic group.[leave-depart-quit](2)Lexical sets-words denoting
different things correlated on extralinguistic grounds.(lion,tiger,cat-the animals
of the cat family).Such classes of words are terminological sets.Words
describing different sides of one and the same general notion are united
in a lexico-semantic group if
a) the underlying notion is not too generalized(like the notions of
‘time’,’ space’,’ life’). b)the reference to the underlying
notion is not just an implication in the meaning of the lexical unit
but forms an essential part in its semantics.Semantic fields:common theme
for all included words.The members of the semantic fields are joined
together by some common semantic component(the common dominator of meaning)[cosmonaut,to orbit-space]
15. Antonymy.Classification of
Antonyms.
Antonyms-a class of words grouped together on the basis of
the semantic relations of opposition.Antonyms are words belonging to
one part of speech sharing certain common semantic characteristics and
in this respect they’re similar to such semantic classes as synonyms,lexical
sets,lexico-semantic groups.Structurally,antonyms can be divided into antonyms of the same root(cheerful- cheerless)and antonyms of different
roots(day-night).Semantically,antonyms
may be classified into contradictories,contraries and incompatibles.Contradictories-represent
the type of semantic relations that exist between pairs like,f.ex.dead-alive.Contradictory antonyms
are mutually opposed.Contraries are
antonyms that can be arranged into a series according to the increasing
difference in one of their qualities.Contraries’re gradable antonyms.They can
have intermediate elements (cold-[warm]-hot).Incompatibles-are
antonyms which are characterized by the relations of exclusion.Semantic
relations of incompatibility exist among antonyms with a common component
of meaning and may be described as the reverse of hyponymy(to say morning’s to say not afternoon)
16(1)The main variants of the Engl.language(2)Variants
of English in the U.K/(3)outside the British Isles:American English.Cockney.Black
English.
(1)In modern linguistics the distinction is made between
Standard English and territorial variants and local dialects of the
Engl.language.Standard English(SE) is
a form of English which is current and literary,substantially uniform
and recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken and understood.SE
is the variety most widely accepted and understood either within an
English-speaking country or throughout the entire English-speaking world.Variants of English are
regional varieties possessing a literary norm.U.K.-British English,Scottish,Irish.Outside
the British isles-American,Canadian,New Zealand,South African,Indian.British English is often
referred to the written SE and the pronunciation known as Received Pronunciation(RP).Local dialects are varieties
of English peculiar to some districts,used as means of oral communication
in small localities-no literary norm.(2)Scottish English is considered
the variant of the English language spoken in Scotland.Pronunciation,grammar
and lexis differ.3 sourcess of tension affected the development of Scottish
English:1)the tension between Scotland and England2)the tension between
Scotland and Ireland3)the tension between Protestants and Catholics.Lexical
peculiarities:1.some semantic fields are structured differently in Scot.Engl.and
in Brit.Engl.2.some words used in Scot.Engl.have equivalents in Brit.Engl.[extortion-blackmail]3.many
distinctions of ScE derive from the influence of other languages(Gaelic,Norweigean,French)4.many
words in ScE and BrE have the same form but are different in meanings(gate in ScE is ‘road’)5.
Some Scottish words and expressions are used and understood across virtually
the whole country(wee[small],lassie[girl]) Irish English is considered
the variant of the Engl.lang.used in Ireland.It’s divided into Southern
and Northern.The Irish Engl.voc.is characterized by:1)the presence of
words with the same form as in BrE but different meanings(backward-shy)2)the use
of most regionally marked words by older,country people(feasant-affable)3)the presence
of nouns taken fr.Irish which often relate either to food or the supernatural(banshee-‘fairy
woman’)4)the Gaelic influence on meaning of some words5)the presence
of words typical only of Irish Engl.(begorrah-by God)6)the layer
of words shared with ScE(ava-at all,greet -cry)(3)Outside the British isles
there’re the following variants:American English,Canadian,Australian,New
Zealand,South African,Indian.These variants have got literary norm,
but have peculiarities in phonetics,spelling,grammar,voc.American English.There’re
whole groups of words which belong to American voc.exclusively-americanisms.They’re:1)historical[to guess-to think,sick-ill]2)words which
are not likely to be discovered in Brit.voc.[blue-grass-a sort of grass
in North America]3)specifically American borrowings[ranch,sombrero]Cockney.Southern dialect
in GB.This dialect exists on 2 levels.As spoken by the educated lower
middle classes it’s a regional dialect marked by some deviations in
pronunciation but few in voc.and syntax.As spoken by the uneducated-differences
in pronunc,voc,morphology,syntax.Specific feature-rhyming slang,in which
some words are substituted by other words rhyming with them.[boots-daisy roots]’up the pole’-drunk.Black Engl.-african-american
vernacular English(Ebonics).It has spread in informal settings.This
variety is largely based on the southern American English variety.
17.(1)Political correctness and
its influence on the language.(2)Gender issues.
(1)Political
correctness means that one should avoid using language which
might be interpreted as offensive especially to groups of people who
are considered to be disadvantaged or oppressed.Besides sex,the most
sensitive domains where linguistic discrimination can be observed are
to do with race,age,ecology,and physical or mental personal development.[Invalid>handicapped>disabled>differently-abled>physically
challenged,Old age pensioners>senior citizens,Short people>vertically
challenged people,Red Indians>Native Americans](2)Gender issues.All these
problems are due to sexism(discrimination against
one sex,typically men against women).Gender issues’ve become part
of the problem of political correctness.In voc,attention has been focused
on the replacement of’male’words with a generic meaning by neutral
items(Chairman>chairperson (председатель),Spokesman>spokesperson
(делегат),Cameraman>camera operator (оператор),Foreman>supervisor
(начальник),Fireman>fire fighter(пожарник),Postman>mail
carrier(почтальон),Businessman>executive/business woman(бизнесмен>исполнительный
директор/бизнес- вумэн),Stewardess>flight attendant(стюардесса),Headmistress>headteacher(директриса))Approaches to the investigation
of gender:Critical discourse analysis
examines the interaction between language and social structures.Cultural practice theory
centers its attention not only on the constitution of cultural meanings,but
also on the significance of individual experience as a force in this
process.Linguagenderology-an independent branch in linguistic science.