- (1)The object of Lexicology. (2) Links with other branches of linguistics.
(3)Two approaches to language study
(synchronic, diachronic).
(1
)The term‘lexicology’is composed
of 2 Greek morphemes:lexis denoting‘word’/logos denoting‘leaning’.In
modern linguistics lexicology is one of the branches of science dealing
with different properties of words and the vocabulary of a language.The
term‘word’denotes the basic
unit of a language,it’s a structural and semantic entity within the
language system.The term‘vocabulary’is used to
denote the system formed by the total sum of all the words that the
language possesses.There’re General(The general study of words and
vocabulary,irrespective of the specific features of any particular language)and
Special Lexicology(The lexicology of a particular language,the study
and description of its words and vocabulary). Special lex. may be Historical(This
branch of linguistic deals with the origin of various words,their change
and development)and Descriptive(deals with the vocabulary of a given
language at a given stage of its development.It studies the functions
of words and their specific structure as a characteristic inherent in
the system)(2)Lexicology
has close ties with other branches of linguistics.There’s a relationship
between lexicology and phonetics since phon.is also concerned with the
study of the word(with the sound-form of the word).A close connection
between lex. and grammar is conditioned by the various ties between
the objects of their study.Lex.is linked with the history.Lex.is also
connected with stylistics, stylistics studies many problems treated
in lex. As problems of meaning, synonym.Lex.is bound up with sociolinguistics.
Sociolinguistics investigates the xtra-linguistic or social causes of
the changes in the vocabulary of a language.(3)There’re
2 principal approaches to language study. Synchronic (descriptive) and
Diachronic(historical).The Swiss philologist Ferdinand de Saussure distinguished
the 2 approaches-synchronic appr.is concerned with systems and diachronic
with single units.The synchronic appr.is concerned with the vocabulary
of a language as it exists at a given period of time. The diachronic
appr.deals with the changes and the development of vocabulary in the
course of time. These 2 approaches are interconnected and interdependent,they
shouldn’t be contrasted.The synchronic appr.studies language at a
theoretical‘point’ in time.It refers to Descriptive Lex.as this
branch of Linguistics deals with the vocabulary and vocabulary units
of language at a certain time. The diachronic appr.refers to Historical
Lex.that studies the development of language or languages over time.
2.(1)Meaning as a linguistic notion.(2)Different
approaches to the study of meaning.(3)Types of meaning.(4)Aspects of
lexical meaning.
(1)There are 3 main categories of definitions of meaning
which may be referred to as-referential or analytical definitions
of meaning;- functional or contextual definitions
of meaning;-operational or information-oriented definitions
of meaning.(2)The characteristic of the referential appr.is that
it distinguishes between the 3 components closely connected with meaning:1)the
sound -form of the linguistic sign 2)the concept underlying this sound-form;3)the
referent,the part or aspect of reality to which the linguistic sign
refers. The model is the so-called‘basic triangle’ .The
sound-form of the linguistic sign[d/\v] is connected with our concept
of the bird which it denotes and through it with the referent,the actual
bird.The diagram implies that meaning is a correlation between the sound-form
of a word,the underlying concept and the concrete object it denotes.The functional apr.to meaning
maintains that the meaning of a linguistic unit can be studied only
through its relation to other linguistic units. The operational appr.definitions
of meaning are centered on defining meaning through its role in the
process of communication.Semasiological appr.(the
study of the semantic side of the word,which starts with the name.The
study consists in considering different meanings of the word, determining
interrelations between them). Onomasiological(it starts
from an object and consists in analyzing different words correlated
with it. This appr.helps to discover how meaning is formed)(3)There are 2 main types of meaning.The
grammatical meaning is defined as an expression in speech of
relationship between words.The lexical meaning of the
word is the meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its forms
and distributions.The part-of-speech meaning
of a word is revealed in the classification of lexical items into major
word-classes(nouns,verbs,adjectives and adverbs)and minor word-classes(articles,prepositions,conjunctions)(4)The denotational aspect
of lexical meaning is the part of lexical meaning which establishes
correlation between the name and the object,phenomenon,process or characteristic
feature of concrete reality,which is denoted by the given word.It expresses
the notional content of a word.The connotational aspect
of lexical meaning is the part of meaning which reflects the attitude
of the speaker towards what he speaks about.Connotation includes:1)the
emotive charge (daddy as compared to father), 2)evaluation (clique as compared to group,3)intensity (adore as compared to love), 4)imagery (to wade- to wade through a book)The pragmatic aspect of lex. meaning
is the part of meaning,that conveys information on the situation of
communication.Subsections:1) information on the “time and space”
relationship of the participants2)information on the participants and
the given language community3)information on the tenor of discourse4)
information on the register of communication.
3.The stylistic classification
of the English vocabulary. The formal layer. The neutral layer. The
informal layer.The formal layer.Documents,laws,bills;Learned/bookish words;Paternal/maternal.Scientific
prose-homoginious,in fiction,in descriptive.Poetic diction-words used
in poetry(gore=blood,to slay=to kill,foe-enemy)Archaic obsolete-is no
longer used about a century.Terms-are used to describe some concept
to peculiar some knowledge.The neutral layer.Dialect
words-used in dialects.The informal layer.Colloquial
words1.Literary-in newspapers,fiction,all people(educated/uneducated)[to
have a bite-to have a snack]2.Familiar-shut up,junk food3.Low(rude)-wack,bitch4.Slang-expresses
mostly ironical words,which serve to create fresh names for some things
to make communication easier.
4.The Etymology of the Engl.voc.(1)The
Indo-Euripean stock.(2)Germanic stock.(3)Borrowed words.Latin.Greek.French.Scandinavian.Russian
borrowings.(4)Classification of borrowed words according to the borrowed
aspect.(5)Classification of borrowed words according to the degree of
assimilation.According to their origin Engl.words may be subdivided
into 2 main groups:Native and Borrowed words.(1)The Indo-Euripean stock.These
words have cognates in the vocabularies of different Indo-European languages
and form the oldest layer.Such words express the most important and
frequently used concepts:-a)kinship(mother,son),-b)words naming the
most important objects and phenomena of nature(sun, moon),-c)names of
animals and plants(wolf,tree),-d)words denoting parts of the human body(eye,heart),-e)words
naming concrete physical properties and qualities(red,white,new),-f)numarals
from 1 to 100(1,13),-g)pronouns(I,my,who/exept they(Scandinavian borrowing)),-h)some
of the most frequent verbs(do,be,sit)(2)Germanic stock.It includes
words having parallels in German,Norwegian,Dutch,Icelandic.It contains
a great number of semantic groups some of which are the same as in the
Indo-European group of native words:-d)(head,arm),-nouns denoting periods
of time(winter,week),-b)(storm,sea),-words denoting artefacts and materials(bridge,iron),-words
naming different kinds of garment(hat,shoe),-words denoting abstract
notions(evil,hope),-c)(sheep,fox),-various notional verbs(burn,drive),-adjectives,denoting
colours,size and other properties(dead) ,-adverbs(down,out).(3)Borrowed words.Borrowings
enter the language in 2 ways:through oral speech(immediate
contact between people) and through written speech(books,newspapers)Words
borrowed orally are usually short.Written borrowings preserve their
spelling and some peculiarities of their sound form.We should also distinguish
such terms as ‘source of borrowing’(The
language from which the loan word was taken into English) and ‘origin of borrowing’(The
language to which the word may be traced)-F.ex.paper<Fr papier Lat papyrus<Grpapyros has French as its
source of borrowing and Greek as its origin.English during its historical
development borrowed words from:Latin(3 groups.1-1c.B.C.,2-7c.A.D.,3-the
Renaissance 14-15c.=butter,cheese,wine,kitchen,priest)Greek(the Renaissance period=crisis,paper)French(11-13c.A.D.,the Renaissance
period.=administrative words:state/judge,military terms:army/war,fashion:luxury,seasons:summer/autumn)Scandinavian(8-11c.A.D.=
knife,widow,ill,to die)Russian(the Renaissance
period and later=pioneer)(4)Borrowed aspect:*phonetic borrowings*loan
words proper(are borrowed with the pronounciation,spelling and
meaning undergo assimilation=travel,chair)*translation loans(words
and expressions formed fr.the material already existing in English but
taken fr.another language=wall newspaper,to take the bull by the horns)*Semantic borrowings(the
word exists but the meaning is borrowed is given under the influence
of the word in other language=pioneer)*morphemic(beautiful)(5)Assimilation. *Completely assimilated
borrowed words(chees[Ltn],face[Fr],animal[Ltn])*Partially assimilated(ballet,prestige
[Fr],sombrero)*Unassimilated (barbarisms)(addio,ciao[It]-‘good
bye’)
5.Word structure. Morphemes. Classification
of morphemes.Words consist of morphemes.The morpheme is the smallest
meaningful unit of form. Morphemes cannot be segmented into smaller
units without losing their constitutive essence.Morphemes occur in speech
only as constituent parts of words but not independently.Morphemes may
have different phonetic shapes.In the word-cluster please,pleasing,pleasure
the root morpheme is represented by the phonetic shapes:[pli:z],[pleжe].All
the representations of the given morpheme are called allomorphs. Semantically
morphemes fall into 2 types:Root-morphemes are the lexical
nucleus of words(remake, glassful) and Non-root morphemes include
inflections and affixes(heartless,unsafe).Lexicology is concerned
only with affixational morphemes.Structurally
morphemes fall into 3 types:1)A free morpheme is
defined as one that coincides with the stem or word-form (friendship).2)A bound morpheme
occurs only as a constituent part of a word.Affixes are bound morphemes
for they always make part of a word (darkness,impolite).3)Semi-bound morphemes
are morphemes that can function in a morphemic sequence both as an affix
and as a free morpheme(half, half an hour-free morpheme\half-done-bound morpheme).
6.(1)Word-formation.(2)Affixation.(3)Suffixation.Classification
of suffixes.(4)Prefixation.Classification of prefixes.(5)Productive
and non-productive affixes.(6)Semi-affixes.Problems with affixation.(7)Affixation
and other ways of word-formation.
(1)Word-formation is the system of derivative types of words and the
process of creating new words from the material available in the language
after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns.2 types of word-formation:word-derivation(affixation
and conversion),word-composition(formation
of a new word by combining 2 or more stems which occur in the language
as free forms=house-keeper).(2)Affixation is generally
defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to
different types of bases.It includes suffixation and prefixation. Distinction
between suffixal and prefixal derivatives is made according to the last
stage of derivation(unreasonable-prefical derivative). (3)Suffixation is the formation
of words with the help of suffixes.They can transfer a word into a different
semantic group(friend-friendship) According to the lexico-grammatical
character of the base suffixes are usually added to,they may be:a)deverbal
suf(speaker)b)denominal(endless) c)deadjectival(brightness).According to the part
of speech formed suffixes fall into several groups:a)noun-forming(freedom)b)adjective-forming
(formal)c) numeral-forming(fourteen)d)verb-forming(terrify)e)adverb-forming(quickly).Semantically suffixes
fall into:a)monosemantic(‘female’-tigress)b)polysemantic.(4)Prefixation is the formation
of words with the help of prefixes.They seldom shift words from one
part of speech into another-rewrite-write.Prefixes can be classified
according to different principles.According to the lexico-grammatical
character of the base prefixes are usually added to,they may be:a)deverbal(rewrite)b)denominal(ex-BF)c)deadjectival(uneasy).According to the
class of words they preferably form prefixes are divided into:a)verb-forming(dethrone)b)noun-forming(ex-wife)c)adjective-forming(unfair)d)adverb-forming(uphill).Semantically prefixes
fall into: a) monosemantic b) polysemantic.(5)The word-forming activity
may change in the course of time.Productive affixes are those
used to form new words in the period in question(The most productive=,de-,re-rethink,pre-prefabricate).Non-productive affixes which
are not able to form new words in the period in question(-ful-peaceful,hood-
sisterhood,en-strengthen).(7)There’re some minor
types of modern word formation(Conversion-the
formation of a new word by bringing a stem of this word into a different
formal paradigm(to slave fr.a slave),Shortening-formation
by cutting off a part of the word(phone<telephone),Blending-formation
by combining parts of 2 words(smog-smoke+fog),Acronymy-formation
from the initial letters of a word combination(BBC),Sound-interchange-formation
due to an alteration in the phonemic composition of its root(advice-to
advise),Sound imitation-the
naming of an action(buzz,moo),Back-formation-formation
by subtracting a real or supposed suffix fr.the existing words,Distinctive stress-by
means of the shift of the stress in the source word(‘absent[adj]-ab’sent[v])).
7.(1)Conversion.Typical semantic
relations in Conversion.Problems with conversion.(2)Conversion and other
ways of word-formation.
(1)Conversion is one of the principal ways of forming
words in Modern English.Conversion consists in making a new word from
some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech;the
morphemic shape of the original word remains unchanged.(work-to work) The main varieties of conversion
are:1)verbalization(the formation of verbs[ape-to ape])2)substantivation(the
formation of nouns[a private-private])3)adjectivation(the formation
of adjectives[down adj.-down adv.])4)adverbalization (the formation
of adverbs[home adv.-home n.])The 2 categories of parts of speech especially
affected by conversion are nouns and verbs.1.Verbs converted from nouns
are called denominal
verbs.The converted verb may denote: 1) action characteristic
of the object(ape n.-to ape)2)instrumental use of the object(whip n.-whip
v.)3)acquisition of the object(fish n.-to fish)4) deprivation of the
object(dust-to dust)5)location(pocket-to pocket).2.Nouns converted from verbs
are called deverbal
substantives.The converted noun may denote:1)instance of the
action(to jump-jump)2)agent of the action(to help-help)3)place of the
action(to drive-drive)4)result of the action(to peel-peel)5)object of
the action(to let-let).In case of polysemantic words one and the same
member of a conversion pair may belong to several groups.(2)There’re some minor
types of modern word formation(Conversion-the
formation of a new word by bringing a stem of this word into a different
formal paradigm(to slave fr.a slave),Shortening-formation
by cutting off a part of the word(phone<telephone),Blending-formation
by combining parts of 2 words(smog-smoke+fog),Acronymy-formation
from the initial letters of a word combination(BBC),Sound-interchange-formation
due to an alteration in the phonemic composition of its root(advice-to
advise),Sound imitation-the
naming of an action(buzz,moo),Back-formation-formation
by subtracting a real or supposed suffix fr.the existing words,Distinctive stress-by
means of the shift of the stress in the source word(‘absent[adj]-ab’sent[v])).
8. (1) Composition.(2)Types of meaning
of compound words.(3)Classifications of compound words.(1)Word-composition is the type of word-formation,in
which new words are produced by combining 2 or more Immediate Constituents(ICs),which
are both derivational bases.There’re
3 types of bases:1)bases that coincide with morphological stems;2)bases
that coincide with word-forms;3) bases that coincide with word-groups.The
bases built on stems may be of different degree of complexity:1)simple(week-end)2)derived(letter-writer)3)compound(aircraft-carrier)(2)The meaning of a compound word’s
made up of 2 components:structural and lexical.The
structural meaning of compounds’s formed on the base of:1)
the meaning of their distributional pattern and2)the meaning of their
derivational pattern.The distributional pattern of a compound’s understood
as the order and arrangement of the ICs that constitute a compound word.(fruit-market/
market-fruit=different meaning)The meaning of the derivational pattern
of compounds can be abstracted and described through the interrelation
of their ICs.(n+ven wind-driven)The
lexical meaning of compounds’s formed on the base of the combined
lexical meanings of their constituents.The semantic center of the compound’s
the lexical meaning of the 2nd component modified and restricted by
the meaning of the first.(handbag)(3)According to the relations
between the ICs compound words fall into 2 classes:1)coordinative
compounds(a)reduplicative compounds[50/50]b)compounds formed by joining
the phonically variated rhythmic twin forms[zig-zag]c)additive compounds[queen-bee])and2)subordinative
compounds(age-long).According to the part
of speech compounds represent they fall into:1)compound nouns(sunbeam)2)compound
adjectives(heart-free)3)compound pronouns(nothing)4) compound adverbs(inside)5)compound
verbs(to offset).According to the means
of composition compound words are classified into:1) compounds
composed without connecting elements(heartache)2)compounds composed
with the help of a vowel or a consonant as a linking element(speedometer)3) compounds composed
with the help of linking elements represented by preposition or conjunction
stems(son-in-law).According to the type
of bases that form compounds the following classes can be singled
out:1)compounds proper that are formed by joining together bases built
on the stems or on the word-forms with or without a linking element(street-fighting)2)derivational
compounds that are formed by joining affixes to the bases built on the
word-groups(long-legged).
10.(1)Shortening.(2)Classification
of shortened words.Reduplication.(3)Shortening and other ways of word-building.Problems
with shortening.
(1)Shortening is the formation of a word by cutting off
a part of the word.(2)According to the part
of the word that is cut off(initial,middle,final)there’re the following
types of shortenings:1)initial(or aphesis)[to fend-defend]2)medial(syncrope)[specs-spectacles]3)final(apocope)[veg-vegetables]4)
initial+final[flu-influenza](3)There’re some minor
types of modern word formation(Conversion-the
formation of a new word by bringing a stem of this word into a different
formal paradigm(to slave fr.a slave),Shortening-formation
by cutting off a part of the word(phone<telephone),Blending-formation
by combining parts of 2 words(smog-smoke+fog),Acronymy-formation
from the initial letters of a word combination(BBC),Sound-interchange-formation
due to an alteration in the phonemic composition of its root(advice-to
advise),Sound imitation-the
naming of an action(buzz,moo),Back-formation-formation
by subtracting a real or supposed suffix fr.the existing words,Distinctive stress-by
means of the shift of the stress in the source word(‘absent[adj]-ab’sent[v])).
11.(1)Word groups and phraseological
units.(2)Free word-groups versus phraseological units.(3)Types of transference.(4)Classification
of phraseological units.(1)The term‘syntactic structure’implies
the description of the order and arrangement of member-words in word-groups
as parts of speech(This structure in a red flower-Adj+Noun)The
structure of word-groups may also be described in relation to the head-word.The term‘syntactic pattern’implies
the description of the structure of the word-group in which a given
word is used as its head(to take+books[n]). Endocentric word-groups
are those that have one central member functionally equivalent to the
whole word-group.Exocentric word-groups are
those that have no central component and the distribution of the whole
word-group is different from either of its members.The lexical meaning
of the word-group may be defined as the combined lexical meaning of
the component words.The structural meaning of the world-group is the
meaning conveyed mainly by the pattern of arrangement of its constituents.A
word-group is lexically motivated if the combined lexical meaning of
the group is deducible from the meanings of its components.(2)A phraseological unit
can be defined as a reproduced and idiomatic unit built up according
to the model of free word-groups and semantically and syntactically
brought into correlation with words.There is a need for criteria exposing
the degree of similarity/difference between phraseological units and
free word-groups,phraseological units and words.There are structural,semantic
and syntactic criterions.(3)Phraseological transference
is a complete or partial change of meaning of an initial word-combination
as a result of which the word-combination acquires a new meaning and
turns into a phraseological unit.1.Transference based on simile is the intensification
of some feature of an object denoted by a phraseological unit by means
of bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely
different class(pretty as a picture-хороша как картинка).2.Transf.based
on metaphor is a likening of
one object of reality to another,which is associated with it on the
basis of real or imaginable resemblece.(flog a dead horse-зря
тратить силы)3.Transf. based on metonymy is a transfer of
name from one object to another based on the contiguity of their relations(a silk stocking-a rich
man)4.Synecdoche’s a variety
of metonymy.Transf.based on it is naming the whole by its part,the replacement
of the common by the private,vice versa(the flesh and blood-in
a material form)(4)Phraseological fusions
are completely non-motivated word groups(as mad as a hatter–utterly
mad).Phraseological unities are
partially non- motivated as their meaning can usually be perceived through
the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological unit(to bend the knee–to submit
to a stronger force).Phraseological collocations
are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct
meaning,while the other is used metaphorically(to meet the requirements).
12.(1)Semantic change.Linguistic and
extralinguistic causes of semantic change.(2)Metaphor,Metonymy,Generalization,Specialization
of meaning. Amelioration,Perjoration of meaning,Euphemism,Litotes,Irony,Hyperbola.(1)Word meaning is liable to change in the course of
the historical development of language.There’re distinguished 2 causes
of semantic change:1.Linguistic and2.Extra-linguistic.By extra-linguistic causes
various changes in the life of speech community are meant(changes in
economic and social structure,changes in scientific concepts[hlaford-‘bread-keeper’
and later ‘muster’]).Some changes of meaning occur due to linguistic causes(factors
acting within the language system)The commonest form which this influence
takes is so-called ellipsis.[to starve(in Old English{OE})-‘to
die’,in 16th c.-‘to die of hunger’(because was used
with hunger)]Another linguis.cause
is discrimination/differentiation
of synonyms-the semantic development of a number of words.[In
OE land-‘solid part of earth
surface’later’the territory of nation’]Fixed content-linguistic
factor.[token when brought into
competition with the loan word sign became restricted
in use to a number of set expressions as love token ](2)Metaphor-the semantic
process of associating 2 referents,one of which resembles the other.Metonymy-the semantic process
of associating 2 referents one of which makes part of the other or is
closely connected with it[tongue-‘the organ of
speech’and’language’]*(Change of denotational meaning)*Generalization-when the
word with the extended meaning passes from the specialized vocabulary
into common use[target-‘a small round
shield’now’anything that is fired at’]*Specialization-when the
word with a new restricted meaning comes to be used in the specialized
voc.of some limited group within the speech community[hound-’dog of any breed’now’a
dog used in the chase’]+(change of connotational meaning)+Amelioration implies the
improvement of the connotational component of meaning[minister-‘a servant’,now’a
civil servant of higher rank’]+Perjoration(deterioration)implies
the acquisition by the word of some derogatory emotive charge[boor-‘a peasant’now’a
clumsy fellow’]
13.(1)Polysemy.(2)Diachronic and synchronic approaches
to it.(3)Polysemy and context.(4)Homonymy.Classifications of homonyms.
(1)Polysemy is a phenomenon which has an exceptional
importance for the description of a language system.A word may have
several meanings. It’s called a polysemantic word.Words having only
1 meaning are called monosemantic./Vinogradov\Meanings’re fixed and
common to all people. The usage is only a possible
application of one of the meanings of a polysemantic word.Meaning is
not identical with usage.Polysemy exists only in language, not in speech.(2)If polysemy is viewed diachronically it is understood
as a change in the semantic structure of the word.According to the diachronic
approach in the semantic structure of a word there are 2 types of meaning:the primary meaning and the secondary meaning. Synchronically
polysemy is understood as the coexistence of various meanings of the
same word at a certain historical period.There’re central and marginal meanings of the
word.(3)The term‘context’denotes
the minimal stretch of speech determining each individual meaning of
the word.Contexts may be 2 types:1)linguistic(verbal)and 2)extra-linguistic(non-verbal)1)Linguistic contexts
may be subdivided into lexical and grammatical. In lexical contexts
of primary importance are the groups of lexical items combined with
the polysemantic word under consideration.(heavy table-heavy rain).In grammatical
contexts it is the syntactic structure of the context that serves to
determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word(to make smb.laugh-to make a good teacher)2)Extra-linguistic context-when
the meaning of a word is ultimately determined by the actual speech
situation in which the word is used.(4)Homonyms are 2 or more
words identical in sound form, spelling but different in meaning,distribution
and in many cases in origin.Modern English is rich in it.Homonyms
proper are words identical in their sound-form and spelling but
different in meaning(back[n]-part of a body;back[adj]away from the
front)Homophones
are words of the same sound-form but of different spelling and meaning(piece-part separated from
smth;peace-no war).Homographs are words different in
sound-form and in meaning but identical in spelling(lead- the first position
at a particular time;lead [led]-a soft heavy
grey metal).
14.(1) Synonymy.Classifications
of synonyms.(2)Lexical and terminological sets.Lexico-semantic groups
and semantic fields.